Author: Ten-Chi-Jin

To finish this series on urban stealth movement, we turn to what is perhaps the most dangerous aspect of this topic: movement indoors. Such increased risk is due to the extremely close quarters as well as contained spaces involved, both of which make encounters even more immediate, exacerbate the problem of being detected audially (though while making it easier to detect others) and generally allow fewer options for escape and evasion.

In dealing with this topic, we present a couple of guidelines related to windows and then shift our focus to clearing techniques for the lion’s share of this article. Finally, we attempt to bring this series to a coherent closure with some ideas on further exploration and training.

Dealing with Windows

Windows allow us to see outside but they can also allow others to see us when we are inside. Thus, here we briefly discuss windows and how to observe through them or move past them while also reducing the chances of being detected from outside.

Observe through a window: When looking through a window from inside, stand back far enough away from it so as not to silhouette yourself to outside observers. In the below image, note the deeper position within the room and away from the window. If available, remain within shadows. Avoid tell-tale pulling aside of curtains or raising of blinds. Be certain that you are not backlit, that is, not having a source of light behind you to reveal your silhouette through the window or to cast a shadow on any blinds or curtains.

While common knowledge, it is important to be cognizant of the fact that if it is lighter inside than outside, it is easier for someone outdoors to see inside but more difficult for someone indoors to see outside. This is why for home security it is recommended to close one’s curtains or blinds before dusk. The reverse is of course also true: if it is darker inside than outside, then it is more difficult for someone outside to look inside but easier for someone inside to look outside.

Furthermore, correct usage of blinds, dependent upon which floor one is on (downward toward the outside on the first floor, but upward toward the outside on the second), help to increase privacy while also allowing one to observe outside and let light in.[1]

Move past windows: As with moving past windows outdoors, to prevent silhouetting oneself, it is best to either move back far enough away from the window that one cannot be easily seen from outside (esp. if on an upper floor) or to move under them. The latter can be done by crawling or using a crouched or squatting walk, as listed in the article Individual Stealth Movement.

Individual Clearing of Urban Spaces

Clearing urban spaces involves methodically searching areas to confirm or deny the presence of potential adversaries while being prepared to deal with or react to the presence of those adversaries accordingly as appropriate for one’s purposes. Since our purpose here is evasion and escape, the goal is to ideally move undetected to a safe place, detecting and evading any adversaries without them ever even being aware of your presence. Less than ideal would be to detect adversaries just before they detect you, which would give you a head start for flight or the advantage of the initiative if you must fight.

In a truly ideal situation, the need for clearing would be eliminated altogether by the preemptive security measures one has already taken at one’s home and workplace. These include, for example, ensuring that doors and windows are sufficiently sturdy and locked (especially at night), that there is sufficient exterior lighting, that vegetation does not provide intruders with concealment, that security alarms and video overwatch systems are installed and activated with placards displayed, etc. Following a reasonable home or workplace security checklist can greatly mitigate many risks. Nevertheless, no security plan is either foolproof or invulnerable, thus clearing is a skill worth honing.

All five of the principles for Military Operations in Urban Terrain (MOUT) discussed in the first article of this series; Surprise, Security, Simplicity, Speed and Violence of Action (S4V); come into play in such clearing. The main benefit of clearing is that it helps to deny the enemy the element of surprise and conversely, to ensure that you are not surprised. It can buy you precious seconds, or even a fraction of a second, that could mean the difference between life and death by alerting you to the presence of an adversary so that, if undetected, you can choose a different way out, or if detected, you can either immediately and rapidly initiate your flight/escape or aggressively move to dominate and gain the upper hand if you cannot flee and must fight. In either case, this is where preparedness for swift and decisive violence of action is imperative.

On the related topic of speed, as already discussed in the first article, for civilian escape and evasion, it is usually better to err on the side of caution and to proceed slowly unless there is some very compelling reason to move more quickly. Encountering an adversary is just such a case where speed, whether for flight or fighting, becomes crucial. So is passing through “fatal funnels,” as discussed below. Moving on to yet another principle of MOUT, the act of clearing is itself a method of maintaining security, ensuring that opponents are not within dead space that one is about to enter or pass by. Yet one must remember to frequently check one’s “six,” and indeed to maintain overall 360°-security (plus the third dimension of height—up and down), as opposed to being fixated with tunnel vision on just the space being cleared, thus losing situational awareness of that which is around you. Nevertheless, methodically clearing unseen space, one “slice of the pie” at a time, drastically simplifies your environment and limits the amount of information you have to take it at once as you gradually unveil new space.

Yet recall that the title of this article is “Urban Stealth Movement” and not “Urban Close-Quarters Combat.” These are two very different things. We may draw our fundamental skills, concepts and techniques from CQC/CQB, but our ultimate aim here is quite different.

It should be made very clear up front that you should never attempt to clear your home or any other space of potential intruders. The police should be contacted immediately if there is any serious suspicion of intruders, an active shooter or any other threats. They have the necessary equipment, training, personnel and resources to accomplish the extremely dangerous task of clearing with mitigated risk. It would be both foolish and irresponsible for you to attempt to do so on your own, especially single-handedly, since professionals almost invariably operate in teams, such as from around two to six people.

The only circumstances when you should be moving around and clearing spaces within a structure in which there are potentially hostile elements is while en route to 1.) exit the building, 2.) reach a place in which to barricade or 3.) locate group or family members like children or others who may be in danger and in need of assistance.

That said, realistically, it is understood that there may be cases when there is not yet any serious indication of intruders, perhaps while investigating a strange noise in the middle of the night, and one is only searching to confirm that the structure is secure. The clearing techniques discussed here can be used for such situations, but as soon as there is a confirmed or strongly suspected presence of an intruder, it is imperative to default to limiting oneself to the above three cases. Whatever the justification, if you do choose to go out clearing a structure, it is important to carry a cell phone with you as a means of communication with potential sources of aid as well as to remember that criminals usually operate in teams, so it is unlikely that there is only one intruder. Furthermore, remember that you have the advantage of intimate familiarity with the layout of your home or place of work, something the intruders probably lack. Thus, waiting quietly and listening may be substantially more valuable than even the best application of clearing techniques.

But to reiterate, unlike some military or law enforcement personnel, who may need to use clearing to secure entire buildings or to locate targets or criminals, the only time the private citizen should be conducting clearing with likely adversaries in a building is when they are looking for a way out of the structure or to a safe place within it to barricade in or to find someone else in need of aid to help them do the same. Do not go out to try to find the “bad guy(s).” This is not only unnecessary and extremely dangerous for you, but it also puts any loved ones you may have left behind in greater danger. It also puts you at risk of being mistaken for an intruder by the police.

Thus, if you return to your home and suspect that it has been entered by an intruder, do not enter and do not attempt to “clear” your home. Instead, call the police, stay on the line and wait for them to arrive while remaining somewhere in a safe place outside of your home.

If you are already inside your home and intruders break in, if you cannot with certainty leave quickly by another route without encountering them, then barricade yourself in place or in a designated and pre-prepared safe room (if you can quickly and safely reach it), call the police, remain on the line and stay where you are.

Again, do not go out in search of potential intruders yourself.

For the lone civilian seeking to make their way from a threat situation to a safe place, military or SWAT urban clearing techniques are generally not as helpful since, among other reasons, they typically involve teams of multiple individuals and are thus inappropriate for a single individual or a person with their family seeking to clear an escape route. Hence, it becomes necessary to rely on clearing tactics intended for single individuals, such as practiced by law enforcement personnel, who must sometimes secure urban spaces on their own (though even they seek to avoid doing so alone), or developed specifically for the purposes of single-person clearing.

Before proceeding any further, a brief disclaimer seems appropriate here. While the current author has been trained in military clearing methods on multiple occasions and has himself made use of clearing principles and techniques while moving through urban spaces in a combat zone, he is far from being a specialist in this area. He was in no way a “door kicker” with extensive experience in the topic at hand. Rather, this article is his humble attempt to bring attention to a valuable set of skills and knowledge that have hitherto been largely confined to military, law enforcement or intelligence professionals along with the gun enthusiast community. It seems, however, that there are potentially much wider applications, as discussed below, and we have sought to adapt these more specifically for escape and evasion, whether armed or unarmed. The assertions made here should thus be seen as working hypotheses. Any constructive criticism or further ideas are sincerely welcome.

Armed or Unarmed Clearing & Improvised Weapons

Remember that for our purposes, the objective of clearing is to find a clear route to escape or to reach and secure a safe room, not to find and apprehend/engage with an adversary, as it might be for military or law enforcement personnel. Nevertheless, one may indeed find oneself face to face with an adversary. In such cases, being armed may well be more advantageous than being unarmed.

But despite the prevalent association of clearing with the use of firearms, one may indeed perform clearing whether armed or unarmed. CQB provides insights and methods that are extremely useful even without a firearm, or any other weapon for that matter. Yet this valuable knowledge has largely remained confined to military, law enforcement and intelligence professionals as well as the firearms enthusiast community.

This is unfortunate, since there are many CQB concepts and skills that are quite useful for finding a clear escape route or securing a safe room that do not require a firearm and could even be easily taught to children without any need for reference to firearms. Moreover, there are many localities in which firearms are not legally accessible to the general population without extensive restrictions, if at all, not to mention persons who are ideologically opposed to the use of violence or lethal force, even to save their own lives. It thus seems senseless to not make this information available to a wider audience. At best, such clearing methods might allow one to detect an adversary before they have detected you and then change routes to avoid them. At worst, if already compromised, they can help to mitigate or avoid being surprised and afford precious time to react, whether through flight or fighting.

If one does choose to be armed, it should be noted that this does not have to be a firearm. It could just as easily be a non-lethal alternative like a taser or pepper spray or an improvised weapon like a baseball bat, shovel, broom handle, skillet, kitchen knife, wooden training sword (bokken, 木刀), or in fact, especially a flashlight, which may not only be used like a baton for striking, but could also be used to expose, startle and temporarily blind an assailant, thus particularly facilitating escape. Granted, a handgun, rifle or shotgun has substantially longer range and immediate profound effect when used properly as compared with most non-lethal and improvised weapons, but among other concerns, their effects tend to be more serious and permanent, the risk of collateral damage is significantly greater and their legality (not to mention the potential legal consequences of their use) varies by locale.

Whatever the case, it is essential that if you do choose to be armed, that the weapons be accessible to you but tools such as firearms or live blades should not be accessible to children who could be seriously injured or killed by their misuse. Also be certain that any weapon carried is indeed legal to carry and use for self-protection in your locality and know the situations in which its use is legally acceptable, such as in terms of proportional use of force. Firearms often require registration, so be certain that if you possess and use one that it is properly registered in your locality if required to do so and that you have the correct permits to carry it. Moreover, be thoroughly proficient and well-practiced in the use of any arms you intend to carry (such as putting in sufficient and regular hours at the dojo or at the shooting range in the case of firearms). Also make sure that those arms are properly maintained and are not likely to malfunction (such as by cleaning and oiling firearms regularly). Some are simpler and need less maintenance than others. Likewise, different weapons require different amounts of training, for instance, firearms require substantially more training and practice as well as knowledge about the relevant laws pertaining to possession and use than pepper spray.

Yet also extremely crucial, and indeed of paramount importance, is that if you choose to carry a weapon of any sort, you must be willing and psychologically prepared to use it should that become necessary, appropriate and legally acceptable in your locality. If you are not, then it may very well be taken away and used against you. In such cases, it would thus be better to go unarmed.

During the act of clearing itself, if you do choose to use a weapon, improvised or otherwise, it is important to avoid allowing it to protrude beyond corners, thus announcing one’s approach. Being trained and well-practiced in weapon retention, that is not allowing an opponent to take your weapon and use it against you, is also advisable. On a related matter, also consider how you intend to carry the weapon while clearing and how you intend to use it if that becomes necessary.

For instance, if using a bokken, broom handle or similar object, rapidly repeated thrusts rather than “cutting”/striking techniques may be more effective and beneficial, keeping the opponent at a distance and even increasing it by pushing them back with one’s thrusts. Perhaps the optimum positions for this purpose are those known in a certain school of traditional Japanese swordsmanship as as gedan no kamae (下段之構, “low-level posture”) and tosui no kamae (棟水之構, “ridge water posture”), since they allow for a clear field of vision from ceiling to floor while also being poised to preemptively attack by simply raising the wooden training sword, broom handle or similar object while stepping forward to thrust aggressively and repeatedly at any threat within range. Moreover, compared with other possible postures, it is much easier to avoid announcing one’s approach by allowing one’s weapon to protrude beyond the corner, thus giving away one’s presence prior to clearing around the corner.

Another consideration pertaining to weapons is that you do not want to be mistaken for an intruder by the police if they arrive on the scene. Thus, be certain that you are not moving around your house, especially not with a weapon in hand (improvised or otherwise), when the police arrive. Ideally, you should either no longer be inside the residence when the police arrive, or you should be barricaded in a safe room which they have already been informed of the location of telephonically via emergency services like 112 (EU) or 911 (US).

Before delving into the fundamentals of clearing, it is important to point out that it is possible to prepare your home to facilitate your clearing efforts. As pointed out by Brett in his article “How to Safely Clear Your Home,” motion sensor-activated lights can be beneficial and there are affordable security cameras that can be wirelessly linked to your mobile phone, thus allowing you to clear your home remotely without exposing yourself to greater danger. Similarly, the placement of mirrors and other reflective surfaces can facilitate seeing around corners and into other rooms before entering them. Moreover, furniture can be arranged so as to offer an open field of view to create as little dead space as possible and while also being used to deny adversaries the use of certain other areas of dead space and encourage them toward the “fatal funnel,” discussed below, where they are more easily seen.

Clearing Fundamentals

There are a handful of basic situations that serve as a foundation for all urban clearing methods and should thus be mastered. Nevertheless, very few structures can be reduced to only these situations, thus flexibility and adaptiveness are crucial. All of these fundamentals can and should be practiced regularly while moving about one’s residence and place of work. This can be as simple as employing these techniques in conjunction with one’s daily activities, but one should also devote special time and effort toward practicing these fundamentals with whatever weapons, improvised or otherwise, that one may be expecting to use. Here, we propose the following as an optimum set of fundamentals.

Corners

Doorways/Rooms

Hallways

T-Intersections

X-Intersections

Opposing Open Doors

Stairs

Multiple Doorways/Rooms

With these major fundamentals listed, we now discuss each in turn. From among these, clearing corners, “pie-ing the corner” or “slicing the pie” is the most fundamental of all and will be discussed first.

Corners: We have already touched on “pie-ing” corners or “cutting/slicing the pie” in the preceding article in this series and, as just noted, it is the foundational technique for clearing. Ideally, it may allow you to see an adversary before they see you, so that you can then choose another route to avoid them. Yet even if they do detect you first, visually or audially, it can provide you with precious seconds or even a fraction of a second within which to react, whether your choice, depending on the circumstances, is flight, fight or even freeze.

When pie-ing a corner, to allow maximum time to react, it is advisable to be as far away from the corner being pie-ed as reasonably and practically possible, thus creating a large “reactionary gap” within which to respond to threats. If your aim is to quickly overtake an adversary while unarmed, then it may be advisable to be somewhat closer, but distance is emphasized here given our preference for escape and evasion over engaging in close-quarters combat. In any case, be certain not to “crowd the corner,” getting too close to it and/or allowing parts of yourself or any weapon you may be carrying to protrude beyond the corner, thus undesirably announcing your arrival in advance.

One may lean in slightly or even quickly peek around the corner. To practice and to see how much of oneself is exposed while pie-ing, leaning in and/or peeking, one can practice with a full-length mirror (as recommended in the WikiHow article “How to Clear a Building with a Firearm”), treating the edge of the mirror as the apex of the corner. The same article also provides a useful partner exercise that involves both participants carrying a flashlight while pie-ing from opposite sides of the same corner. The first participant to see the other “wins” by shining the flashlight on them.

Regarding pace, in the best case, pie-ing along with all other clearing methods should be performed slowly and methodically, side-stepping without allowing the feet to cross and examining one “slice of the pie” at a time, scanning from floor to ceiling along the corner’s edge before stepping again to open up and allow you to examine another slice of the pie.[2] While doing so, whether unarmed or carrying firearms or improvised weapons, one should maintain a stance that both prevents one from being exposed prematurely around the corner (e.g., foot, shoulder, elbow, head or weapon) and also allows one to be prepared to engage with any threat that may present itself.

Such side-stepping, performed slowly and cautiously, is advisable (whether armed or unarmed) whenever possible, but especially if there is a high likelihood that there is an adversary on the other side. Sometimes, however, it may be necessary to clear more quickly. Thus, there is another, faster method that is valuable in situations when there is an urgent and compelling need to move more quickly. Yet this should only be done if there is only a limited possibility, with no specific indicators (such as having heard movement in a particular room) that an adversary is on the other side of the corner that is being “pie-ed.”

This quicker method involves walking in an arc, smoothly and with a lowered center of gravity, around the corner with the hips facing in the direction of movement while the head, eyes, arms and any weapons (improvised or otherwise and held in a defensive ready-position, prepared to engage potential adversaries) are oriented toward the center of the imagined circle and directed past the corner to see and be prepared to engage with whatever is beyond it.

This method is indeed used by military and law enforcement personnel, but the smooth, gliding and circular movements it entails with the upper body being oriented toward the center of that circle are also characteristic of the Chinese internal martial art known as Bagua Zhang (八卦掌, “Eight Trigram Fist”). Thus, though probably unintended, we might even add achieving a more fluid and structurally prepared pie-ing of the corner during urban clearing to the list of benefits that have been attributed to the practice of Bagua Zhang. Such smooth arcing movement is a recurrent theme in the fundamental clearing methods that follow.

Doorways/Rooms:

Since we are not clearing entire buildings to find adversaries, but instead seeking to avoid and elude them, it is only advisable to enter a room if it is absolutely necessary to do so as part of one’s escape plan, to locate an isolated group member or loved one or to shelter within that room (temporarily or for longer term). If the aim were to secure the building, this would be entirely unsound, as for this purpose, all rooms would have to be systematically cleared in the sequence in which they are encountered. Yet that is not our objective here, nor is it safe to attempt to do so on one’s own. Here we address four possible scenarios related to clearing doorways/rooms for evasion and escape: 1.) the door is open and there is no compelling need to enter, 2.) the door is open and there is a compelling need to enter, 3.) the door is closed and there is no compelling need to enter and 4.) the door is closed and there is a compelling need to enter.

First, if a doorway is open and one must pass by it (without entering) as part of one’s escape route, it is advisable to perform a sweep from outside, arcing around the entrance while being as far away from it as possible/practical and visually clearing from outside. After doing so, one might pause and listen before proceeding further past the room to determine if one has been detected and if there are any adversaries in pursuit.

Second, if it is necessary to enter a room with an open door, such as as part of one’s escape route, to find a loved one or to shelter-in-place there, first sweep in an arc from the outside while peering into the room. There will be two narrow angles within the room to either side of the doorway that have not been cleared at all. From there, it is possible to enter the room directly at an oblique acute angle (diagonally) or to sweep back to the bottom of the arc before entering straight on at a 90-degree angle and stepping off toward either side of the doorway so as to move outside of the “fatal funnel” (discussed below), and then turning to first clear one direction and then turn again to clear the other.

Important to keep in mind is that, while many who practice and/or teach clearing treat an area as clear once it has been initially cleared, regardless of whether or not it is still under observation, the only time an area is truly clear is when one is directly observing it without obstruction and can continuously confirm the absence of an adversary. Sweeping cannot guarantee that an area which has been initially cleared remains clear after it is no longer under observation. This phenomenon has been described as the “floating angle.”[3] Sweeping back to the bottom of the arc to enter the doorway at a 90-degree angle can somewhat help reduce the risk involved with the floating angle.

Upon entering the room, if possible, it is probably best to first go in the direction away from the door itself, allowing one to clear the largest percentage of the room easily and quickly through a short period of scanning and then dealing with the small amount of blind space behind the opened door. With “center-fed” doorways, when the doorway opens up into the center of the room, this is more of an issue than with “corner-fed” doorways, when the portal is in one of the room’s corners, thus providing less space for adversaries to conceal themselves within behind the opening door.[4]

While stepping beyond the threshold to make the turn/entry into the room, glance quickly over one’s shoulder to look in the opposite direction of one’s movement to check any uncleared space there before returning attention to the path ahead and then spinning back around to face the direction one glanced toward. If there was anyone in the uncleared angle, or who moved within the floating angle during the sweep, you will see them during the glance and will thus be prepared to turn around to deal with the threat or know to flee. Be certain to also clear any dead space deeper within the room, such as behind furniture, appliances and curtains.

Whether one chooses to sweep slowly or hastily, it is always important to move through the doorway, which is the most common example of a “fatal funnel,”[5] as quickly as possible. This is a textbook example of a choke point and thus an ideal ambush site. Stepping through a doorway and into a room is where speed and violence of action come especially into play. If an adversary is inside the room waiting to ambush you, you are most accessible and predictable and thus easily targeted when you walk through the doorway. Just as with any templated ambush site, your goal in moving through a doorway is to move off of the “X” as quickly as possible.

Conversely, avoiding being in the fatal funnel can also be used defensively, while barricaded in place instead of moving around and clearing. If an active shooter, for instance, enters the room you are sheltered in, it is best to not be in the fatal funnel where they will see you immediately upon entering. Instead, it would be far better to remain within one of the angles of dead space not within the fatal funnel and to the side of the entrance (the areas that remain uncleared even after sweeping from the outside). This affords you the element of surprise and the ability to essentially flank the intruder by ambushing them from the side as they enter.[6]

Third, if a door is already closed and there is no reason to enter the room, then it is advisable to simply pass it, stealthily and without attempting to enter.

Fourth and finally, if it is indeed necessary to enter a room with a closed door, such as to escape through that room, to find a loved one or to barricade there, it is first important to determine whether the door opens inwards or outwards. If you can see the hinges, then the door opens outwards, towards you. If you cannot see the hinges, then the door opens inwards, away from you. If the door opens outwards, it is advisable to open it from the hinges side. Conversely, if it opens inwards, it should be opened from the doorknob side. In both situations, this avoids an immediate encounter and allows the door to act as momentary concealment (though probably not cover from bullets).[7]

In either case, it is important, after swinging the door open, to immediately step back and away from the doorway. This has been referred to as “ghosting,”[8] since from the perspective of anyone who may be inside the room, it appears that the door has opened on its own, as if by a ghost. It is important to swing the door open with enough force that it opens fully, but not so much that it bounces back and closes again. Once this has been done, one proceeds precisely as when entering a room with an open door as described above, starting with performing a sweep from outside before entering as before, but with an especially heightened awareness that one has certainly lost the element of surprise by opening the door and any adversaries within are already anticipating one’s entrance.

Hallways: There are differing perspectives on how to move through and/or clear hallways. Some experts advise hugging the wall while others recommend remaining in the center, between the two walls.

According to the former perspective, just as when moving parallel to buildings if outdoors, when indoors and moving through a hallway, it is advisable to stay close to one wall or the other. The logic goes that this is to avoid remaining in the more readily seen and engaged center of the hallway, which is a natural focal point that we might consider a kind of “fatal funnel.” Nevertheless, hallways in their entirety could be considered fatal funnels in and of themselves, which is why it is inadvisable to linger in them, just like we limit time in the doorway when clearing rooms.

According to the latter perspective, however, since ricocheting bullets tend to hug the walls, one should remain more in the center, between the two walls, to reduce the risk of being hit by such ricocheting rounds. The further benefit of being in the middle is that it allows equal observation of both sides of the hallway to identify upcoming doorways and whether or not those doors are open or closed.[9]

Whichever approach you choose to take, it is advisable to limit the amount of time you spend in hallways, since there are at least two avenues of approach and there may also be multiple doorways and corners from which an assailant might suddenly appear. Thus, do not loiter in hallways. Use them only as routes to escape to a safe place or find a group member or loved one. If you need to pause your escape to regroup, plan, prepare or administer emergency first aid, occupy and barricade a room temporarily, before returning to the hallway to proceed with escaping, etc. If escape is not possible and barricading is the next option, this should of course be done inside a room rather than a hallway.

If there are open doors in a hallway that you are passing through, these can be partially cleared by performing an arced sweep as you pass by them. This would not be tactically sound at all if one’s aim were to clear the entire building. If this were the goal, then it would be necessary to systematically clear each room in the order in which they are encountered, whether the doors are closed or not. Yet given our objectives of escaping, reaching a safe room or locating an isolated group member or loved one, then foregoing clearing each room is probably advisable.

T-Intersections: Clearing t-intersections is very similar to clearing a doorway. When approaching a t-intersection, determine which direction you want to go, right or left. Imagine a straight line drawn between the two corners. We will refer to this as the “threshold.” If you choose to go right, for instance, then “pie” the left corner first, but without passing beyond the threshold at the right corner to avoid exposing oneself beyond the right corner. Then, sweep in an arc toward the left corner while pie-ing the right corner, again, not crossing the threshold at the left corner. In both directions, there will be two narrow angles that have not been cleared at all (not to mention the above-noted concept of the “floating angle”). Step beyond the threshold to make the right turn, but while doing so, glance over the left shoulder (or the right shoulder if turning left) to check the uncleared angle there before returning your attention to the path ahead. If there was anyone in the uncleared angle, or who moved within the floating angle after you moved to pie the right corner, you will see them and can thus turn around to face the threat or know to flee.

X-Intersections: Dealing with x-intersections is basically the same as negotiating t-intersections, with the notable exception that there are four possible avenues of approach rather than just three. Thus, while clearing left and right or right and left and also paying attention to one’s “six,” one must also pay attention to this fourth avenue of approach. Moreover, if you choose to go straight instead of turning, be certain to glance in both directions while crossing through the intersection to check the small angles on either side that were not cleared during the sweep.

Opposing Open Doors: This situation is treated quite similarly to the preceding x-intersection. Here it is likewise possible to either go straight or to turn, left or right. So if while moving through a hallway, one encounters two open doors that are opposite one another, visualize an imaginary threshold just before both doorways. Then conduct a sweep as you would with an x-intersection.

If you intend to go right, first clear the left angle, then sweep to clear the right angle and quickly glance to the left while crossing the threshold and entering the room to the right as you would enter any room, but without the benefit of a full outside sweep. Conversely, if you intend to go left, first clear the right angle, then sweep to clear the left angle and glance to the right before crossing the threshold and entering the room to the left.

If you intend to go straight and pass both rooms, however, glance left and right as you pass both doorways. It may be advisable to turn around and pause after passing both doorways to listen and observe to know if you have been detected and if it is necessary to increase speed to escape or to engage with a pursuer.

Stairs: Clearing staircases is like slicing the pie, but done continuously while spiraling upwards or downwards to ascend or descend a series of steps. Yet it is even more complex than that, because as one moves, there are multiple angles where dead space is being gradually or suddenly revealed. This includes the stairs themselves (a diagonal corner), the next landing (a horizontal corner) and whatever type of area the stairwell is in, whether enclosed and accessible through a doorway or opening up directly into another area (generally a vertical angle) such as a hallway or lobby (which entails a deeper area to clear as well as likely obstacles within it that create additional dead space).

Multiple Doorways/Rooms:

When there are multiple rooms with closed doors, the situation is substantially simpler than if the doors are open. Be aware of these other potential avenues of entry and prepared to respond if an adversary comes through one of them, but do not open the door and enter unless necessary for escape, etc. If the doors are already open, things become much more complex. It is then best to deal with whichever doorway/room one has encountered first, but while doing so, striving to use one’s clearing movements for that doorway/room (whether the outer sweep before entering the room or after entry while clearing deeper within the room) to simultaneously also clear as much as is possible of adjacent rooms with open doors. In situations with multiple open doors, Special Tactics LLC advises using speed as one’s security to move to more advantageous positions.[10]

Conclusion

To bring this three-part series on urban stealth to a close, in review, we began with some general guidelines and principles of operating in urban terrain in the first article followed by exploring some specific ideas for movement outdoors in urban settings in the second article as well as indoors in this third and final article. These articles assume a basic underlying knowledge of stealth generally, whether in urban or rural terrain, which were addressed in the four-part series on the fundamentals of stealth. We have drawn from or touched upon a variety of sources, especially from military and law enforcement, as well as parkour, climbing and mountaineering, which are themselves fulfilling pastimes and effective forms of physical exercise, thus making their pursuit worthwhile endeavors in their own right. Yet there are still other pursuits, skills and areas of knowledge that could also be incorporated into developing viable approaches to stealth for escape and evasion in urban settings. These might include, for instance, paintball, lasertag or video games, which could offer new approaches to training, techniques and strategies. An excellent example is the works of the video game enthusiast YouTuber Stealth Technique. Finally, we must note that there is still much more that could also be addressed in relation to this theme. For instance, here we have dealt with preventing one’s physical form from being discovered and have not at all touched upon the concept of “going gray,” surveillance detection and countermeasures or the issue of stealth/privacy in cyberspace. These will be dealt with in future articles.

Bibliography

Brett. “How to Safely Clear Your Home.” ArtofManliness.com. July 11, 2022, https://www.artofmanliness.com/skills/manly-know-how/safely-clear-home/.

Denning, Jeffrey. “Room Clearing 101: Five Things You Should Know About Close-Quarters Combat.” Guns.com. March 17, 2022, https://www.guns.com/news/2012/05/08/room-clearing-close-quarters-combat-battle.

Feildboy, Eliran. “ITCQB | One Man Room Clearing Tactics.” UFPro.com. March 17, 2022, https://ufpro.com/us/blog/itcqb-one-man-room-clearing-tactics.

GunSpot. “Avoid the Fatal Funnel: Surviving a Home Invasion.” TheArmoryLife.com. 05 May 2022, https://www.thearmorylife.com/avoid-the-fatal-funnel-surviving-a-home-invasion/.

Sam. “Why No CQB Home Defense? Because You’re Untrained Stupid.” Spotter Up: In Depth Tactical Solutions. March 17, 2022, https://spotterup.com/why-no-cqb-home-defense-because-youre-untrained-stupid.

Something Kind. “Adjust Venetian Window Blinds: Privacy, Light.” YouTube.com. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h5PBtWd4YgY accessed 29 June 2022.

Special Tactics, LLC. Single-Person Close Quarters Battle Urban Tactics for Civilians, Law Enforcement and Military (Special Tactics, LLC, 2016).

Suarez, Gabe. Tactical Advantage: A Definitive Study of Personal Small-Arms Tactics (Boulder, CO: Paladin Press, 1998).

US Army, FM 3-06.11 (FM 90-10-1) Combined Arms Operations in Urban Terrain (Washington, DC: Department of the Army, 2002).  

US Army, FM 90-10-1 An Infantryman’s Guide to Combat in Built-Up Areas (Washington, DC: Department of the Army, 1993).

US Army, SH 21-76 The Ranger Handbook (Fort Benning, GA: Ranger Training Brigade – United States Army Infantry School, 2011).

US Army, STP 21-1-SMCT Soldier’s Manual of Common Tasks Warrior Skills Level 1 (Washington, DC: Department of the Army, 2009).

Wagar, Nathan. “CQB and the ‘Floating Angle’.” Borderland Strategic. March 17, 2022, https://borderlandstrategic.com/2017/06/13/cqb-and-the-floating-angle/.

wikiHow. “How to Clear a Building with a Firearm.” wikiHow. March 17, 2022, https://www.wikihow.com/Clear-a-Building-with-a-Firearm.

---

[1] For a helpful demonstration, see Something Kind, “Adjust Venetian Window Blinds: Privacy, Light,” YouTube.com, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h5PBtWd4YgY accessed 29 June 2022.

[2] For a more detailed discussion of angles in clearing and the correlation between increasing angle width and increasing exposure/risk, see Eliran Feildboy, “ITCQB | One Man Room Clearing Tactics,” UFPro.com, March 17, 2022, https://ufpro.com/us/blog/itcqb-one-man-room-clearing-tactics.

[3] For more on this, see Nathan Wagar, “CQB and the ‘Floating Angle’,” Borderland Strategic, March 17, 2022, https://borderlandstrategic.com/2017/06/13/cqb-and-the-floating-angle/.

[4] For a detailed treatment of dealing with “center-fed” versus  “corner-fed” rooms, see Special Tactics, LLC, Single-Person Close Quarters Battle.

[5] For a useful explanation and demonstration, see the following article and accompanying video: GunSpot, “Avoid the Fatal Funnel: Surviving a Home Invasion,” TheArmoryLife.com, https://www.thearmorylife.com/avoid-the-fatal-funnel-surviving-a-home-invasion/ accessed 05 May 2022.

[6] For a helpful explanation and demonstration, see Reflex Protect, “What is the ‘Fatal Funnel?’,” YouTube.com, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s-rTPf_uWNg accessed 05 May 2022.

[7] Special Tactics, LLC, Single-Person Close Quarters Battle, 17.

[8] Brett, “How to Safely Clear Your Home.”

[9] Special Tactics, LLC, Single-Person Close Quarters Battle, 58.

[10] Idem, p. 76.

In the last article, we discussed some guidelines and principles of operating in urban terrain. In this article, as well as the one to follow it, we will specifically examine how to move stealthily in such an environment for the purposes of escape and evasion. In this article, we focus on stealth movement for outdoors in urban settings.

We began the last article with brief reference to okuton (屋遁, “house escape” or “building escape”), which is one of thirty methods for escape and evasion attributed to the feudal Japanese ninja and known as the tenchijin santon no hō (天地人三遁の法, “heaven, earth, man-three methods of escaping,” each of these three methods has ten sub-disciplines for a total of thirty). Here we consider how one early 20^th-century author on the ninja, Itoh Gingetsu, described this art. For him, it is comprised of the use or successful negotiation of any buildings or manmade structures such as “fences, stone walls, hedges and so on […].”[1]

Obviously, these structures can be used to conceal oneself such as by hiding inside or behind a building, but Itoh focuses more on being able to efficiently negotiate the urban environment, à la parkour.

He points out how this requires mental flexibility and confidence as well as a high degree of physical fitness and agility. Itoh makes several similes with animals or nature in this regard:

“[…] be like a spider and stick to the walls, do as the rat does and cross roof beams and Nageshi. Slip underneath the floor as a weasel does or, if necessary, cross from rooftop to rooftop as a cat would do and fly off the kawara clay roof tiles as lightly as rain. Kick up the tatami mats in the main hall and shuffle in the confines like a mole. Other times you will need to break through a wall and leap over a fence. Anything can happen.”[2]

Note the emphasis at the end of this statement that one should be prepared for all possibilities, as well as the theme which runs throughout the quote to be flexible and adapt accordingly to such contingencies as they arise. These sentiments are reminiscent of another concept attributed to the ninja, the notion of banpen fugyō (万変不驚, “10,000 changes, no surprises”), which seems especially appropriate for the complex, fast-paced and rapidly changing nature of urban environments.

Following in the spirit of the method of okuton and seeking to recreate its essence for modern times for the purposes of escape and evasion for self-protection, this article has largely drawn from the US Army’s FM 90-10-1 An Infantryman’s Guide to Combat in Built-Up Areas as well as STP 21-1-SMCT Soldier’s Manual of Common Tasks Warrior Skills Level 1 in the sections entitled, “Perform Movement Techniques During an Urban Operation” and “Select Hasty Firing Positions During an Urban Operation,”as well as from other manuals that are specifically devoted to MOUT (Military Operations in Urban Terrain). Here, however, we have attempted to adapt these methods and approaches to civilian escape and evasion needs, whether armed or unarmed. Also consulted was literature on parkour, and we draw especially from The Ultimate Parkour & Freerunning Book by Witfeld, Gerling and Pach. Yet the reader is also referred to and encouraged to avail themselves of training in other disciplines that may also prove beneficial, such as climbing, bouldering and mountaineering as well as even the obscure literature on the little-known pastime of “night climbing” or “buildering.”

Proceeding now to the main content of this article, it consists of various commonly encountered situations and opportunities in urban terrain as well as potential approaches for dealing with these. We turn first to one of the most fundamental aspects of operating in urban terrain: corners and how to observe and move around them.

Observing around corners: Passing corners involves leaving dead space and potentially exposing oneself to an observer that one was hitherto concealed from. Thus, it is important to recognize corners ahead of time and not to expose oneself (such as by walking past corners unaware of them or by allowing one’s shadow or equipment to protrude beyond them) prior to making a visual reconnaissance of the area on the other side of the corner.

“Cutting the pie” or “pie-ing the corner,” as the cornerstone of building/room-clearing techniques, discussed at greater length in the next article, is probably the most secure way of observing around a corner. Ideally, one should be as far away from the corner being pie-ed as possible or at least as practical. This allows for greater standoff, should the enemy be immediately on the other side of the corner, as well as considerable responsiveness, since one is already standing upright on two feet, and can move relatively quickly, rather than when lying on the ground in a prone position, as advised by STP 21-1-SMCT and other manuals dealing with MOUT and found in the next technique.

This alternative to cutting the pie should only be used when the enemy is likely further away and not immediately on the other side of the corner. One lays flat on the ground, right next to the wall or other object, and very slowly peek one’s head around the corner, only as far as is necessary to observe.

The idea is that the head peeking around the corner, due to its appearing at a low height, is less likely to be recognized for what it is, if it is noticed at all, and may be misinterpreted as something else, like a shadow. Conversely, peeking around the corner at head-height will likely be immediately recognized as such. It is also more likely to draw immediate enemy small arms fire. Being close to the wall is intended to reduce exposure from other angles.

Observe around obstacles: While observing around corners was just discussed, it should be mentioned that when looking beyond obstacles in general, it is important to look around, under or through them rather than over. This is because looking over obstacles substantially increases one’s risk of exposure through silhouetting.

Moving past windows: To prevent silhouetting oneself through windows, it is best to move under them using a crouched walk, squatting walk or crawling.

Alternatively, if it is a basement window, it is preferred to step or jump over it rather than simply walking past it. Hence, do not make the mistake of exposing one’s head and upper body while passing a window or failing to notice a basement window and simply walking past it, thus exposing one’s legs.

Moving across open areas: Avoid staying in or crossing open areas whenever and wherever possible. Open areas are places that afford little or no cover and concealment. Examples include streets, squares, courtyards, parks, lawns, etc. It is preferrable to bypass open areas by contouring around them or boxing around them with four successive 90-degree turns (R-L-L-R or L-R-R-L). Sometimes, however, crossing an open area may be inevitable. When this is the case and you must cross an open area, be certain to do the following to mitigate your risk of exposure and being detected or engaged by an enemy:

-Visually reconnoiter the area to be crossed as well as one’s destination and next selected position prior to moving.

-Choose the most direct route possible. All variables being equal, the fastest route from point A to point B is a straight line.

-Whenever possible, select a route that can afford some positions of CCC.

-Dart between such positions of CCC with ideally no longer than 3- to 5-second rushes. This not only reduces exposure to visual detection, but it also makes one more difficult to target with firearms.

-After each sprint, pause briefly to look and listen for indications that you have been compromised as well as to visually reconnoiter the area and your next position before moving again. Watching mice scurrying in the open, running in short bursts interrupted by brief pauses, can be very instructive for how this ought to be performed.

Moving parallel to buildings/walls: Moving closely alongside walls substantially reduces one’s exposure. This is especially true if there are shadows within which one can remain and move. If properly moving past windows, as discussed above, for someone within the building which one is moving alongside to see oneself, they would have to physically stick their head out of a window.

Moving parallel to a building or wall also helps to reduce the area that one must constantly observe and scan to maintain security and situational awareness.

These points are among the important benefits ascribed to the sideways cross-step method of yoko aruki (横 歩, “sideways walk”) attributed to the feudal Japanese ninja. One can use this technique to travel quickly, quietly and closely to walls, including remaining within any shadows provided, while also being able to observe a 180-degree arc with a building or wall behind oneself.

Crossing walls and other obstacles: Prior to crossing any wall or other obstacle, visually reconnoiter the other side to determine what is there, whether that be an adversary, a long drop or other hazards. If the decision is made to proceed, find a low place to cross, if available, and cross quickly over the top, pressed as closely as one can to the obstacle to maintain as low of a silhouette as possible. The quickness with which this is done helps to reduce one’s duration of exposure.[3]

Climbing (ascending and descending): One may use external vegetation like trees and vines, structure-supporting poles, drainpipes or other structural features that could serve as hand- and foot-holds to ascend or descend from obstacles like walls or to reach or descend from windows or rooftops. Yet a substantial risk of severe injury or death remains with such methods.

A similarly risky and even life-threatening option is the use of ropes. Undamaged and well-made ropes, with sufficient tensile strength to safely support one’s weight, that are attached reliably to a secure anchor point that can also support one’s weight, such as with a grappling hook or by being tied off properly, can also be used for ascent or descent. Yet it should be noted that it is much easier to use ropes to descend rather than to ascend. The latter is extremely physically demanding and proves quite challenging to the average person.

Such abovementioned risks and challenges can be mitigated, though not entirely eliminated, through training, practice and conditioning in correct climbing technique as well as the use of proper climbing equipment. There is even a rare or emergent sub-branch of climbing for specific use in urban areas that is known as “urban climbing” or “buildering” (a combination of the terms “building” and “bouldering”).

We return to the issue of specialized climbing training below, but there are somewhat safer options available (though they are not entirely risk-free) and for the most part, they require less specialized equipment, training, practice and physical conditioning.

One might find existing ladders or stairs attached or adjacent to the structure that could be used, like a fire escape, or one may find ladders or make use of improvised ladders or makeshift “stairs,” such as utility boxes or vehicles that are immediately next to a structure and can thus be used as a kind of stepstool to reach a higher level.

Moreover, to overcome low heights, such as low walls, it may be possible to do so oneself, by running up the wall or other vertical surface using a technique known variously as shōten no jutsu or passe muraille, discussed below.

Yet partner assists can also be invaluable, whether with supplemental improvised equipment, like a wooden board or metal bar, or without them, relying on one’s partners’ bodies, such as using their clasped hands like a stirrup.

But returning to the issue of specialized skillsets, some obstacles are higher or more difficult to overcome than is allowed for by the abovementioned techniques. It is thus advisable to have basic knowledge and proficiency in climbing, and of course a sufficient level of physical conditioning to use it.

There is in fact a category of climbing developed in and particularly suited for urban environments known, inter alia, as “urban climbing,” “buildering,” “night climbing” or “roof climbing.” Interestingly, dating back as early as the late 19^th century, a small body of literature on this topic emerged from students at the University of Cambridge who pursued this as a sort of clandestine pastime, which likely inspired a similar student movement at the University of Oxford.[4] Yet this is clearly part of a broader phenomenon and basic human exploratory impulse. Even the current author recalls such exploits not only at university on the rooftops of his dormitory, but also even throughout high school.

Yet such urban climbing is almost always unregulated, can be extremely dangerous and is usually illegal. Thus, the reader is strongly advised against undertaking such a pursuit. Alternatively though, foundational climbing skills, which could prove easily adaptable to urban structures in the case of a true emergency, can be acquired safely and legally at gyms or in courses for general rock climbing, bouldering, mountaineering, etc.

Moving across rooftops: Obviously, moving across rooftops is extremely dangerous and should be avoided if there is any way possible to do so. Not only is there a substantial risk of slipping and falling off of the roof, possibly leading to severe injury or death, but being caught on top of a roof can trap oneself, much like climbing up a tree or hiding in a cave with only one exit. The early twentieth-century author on the ninja, Itoh Gingetsu, referred to this type of situation with the expression: kikutsu ni iki nashi (鬼窟に生なし, “no escape from the devil’s lair [or demon’s cave]”).^[5]

Yet some circumstances may require temporary use of a rooftop to facilitate escape. When this is the case, be certain to visually reconnoiter your next position and proceed carefully, to avoid slipping and falling, as well as to maintain a low silhouette, to avoid being detected visually. Crawling on all fours either face down or face up (like a crab walk), especially on a sloped roof, or squatting or crouched movement can help to not only reduce one’s silhouette to help prevent detection, but also to lower one’s center of gravity, to avoid falling. If an adversary may be inside the building on which one is moving, be certain to move softly, since the sound of movement on the roof will surely attract unwanted attention.

Use of Subterranean Routes: Urban areas may have underground/subterranean features that could help facilitate stealth for escape and evasion, such as subways, catacombs, basements, cellars, underground parking garages, bunkers, fallout shelters, sewers and weather drainage tunnels. But to be able to use these areas, one must first not only know that they exist but also be familiar with their design and how they could be used for concealment and reaching a safe place. The next article on movement indoors provides guidance that also applies to such subterranean settings, but here, we will focus on the dangers inherent in the latter two examples: sewers and weather drainage tunnels.

Sewers may seem like a useful option, yet there are some serious risks involved which probably outweigh any benefits. Sewers are highly dangerous hygienically as well as due to noxious and potentially lethal fumes. Thus, it is extremely inadvisable to ever attempt to traverse through these. In most developed countries, sewer systems are well blocked off and inaccessible anyways. Mines are also of course extremely dangerous.

Weather drainage tunnels are only slightly better than sewers, but in extreme situations, the latter might be one’s only choice. During the current author’s teen years, he spent much time exploring the weather drainage tunnels of his hometown, though he did so not knowing the serious risks involved and would strongly discourage anyone else from doing the same.

But by way of illustration of the potential usefulness of subterranean routes, as part of one of his many fairly innocent youthful misadventures, he made use of a weather drainage tunnel to elude a local police patrol (which was pursuing him and his best friend for the minor legal infraction of driving a four-wheeler on city streets and in the middle of the night). To escape, after parking their vehicle in a concealed location, they then instinctively employed a series of basic urban escape and evasion stealth maneuvers that ultimately culminated in crawling through around 100m of weather drainage pipe to successfully elude pursuit and reach a safe bed-down location despite active professional pursuit.

Some weather drainage tunnels can be traversed while standing and with a clear view of the exit on the other side. Others have a labyrinthine quality with multiple routes including small pipes where it is only possible to crawl through, if they are even large enough to traverse at all.

Be warned, however, that if it is raining, these can quickly fill with water, thus one risks drowning. If there is insufficient ventilation, toxic fumes can replace oxygen and cause death without one ever realizing that they are breathing such fumes. This is not to mention how if the infrastructure is old and dilapidated, a collapse is also possible, perhaps crushing or trapping oneself, and one may not have good enough mobile phone reception to call for help. Moreover, if you enter a weather drainage tunnel without knowing that there is a usable exit, then you encounter the same situation of being trapped without an escape route, as discussed above: kikutsu ni iki nashi (鬼窟に生なし, “no escape from the devil’s lair”).

In sum, one should never use sewers and the use of weather drainage tunnels is also strongly discouraged. Though knowing that such advice will not stop everyone from trying, it is underscored here that if it rains, one risks drowning; without proper ventilation, one risks death from noxious fumes and there are also the risks of being crushed during a collapse or being caught without an exit. So, very rarely if ever would the benefits of using weather drainage tunnels outweigh the drastic risks. Again, it is thus strongly discouraged here.

Use of External Doorways: Before proceeding specifically to indoor situations with the next article, an especially salient liminal or transitional situation must be mentioned, namely, external doorways. It must be noted that doorways are highly predictable avenues for entering or exiting buildings. Thus, using these should ideally be avoided or at least avoiding the use of main entrances. In practice, however, this may well be unavoidable. If so, it should then be undertaken with the utmost caution and with full awareness that an ambush could await one and the kill-zone may very well be the doorway itself. Therefore, visually reconnoiter and select one’s next position prior to passing through such a doorway, move quickly through the doorway to reduce exposure and, when in a group, have an ally positioned and ready to provide assistance should it prove necessary.

On the latter, in the below image, we see how US Army doctrine calls for having allies lay in wait to provide covering fire while passing through a doorway and toward the next covered/concealed position. If operating in a group, whether armed or unarmed, it might likewise be appropriate for companions to wait in reserve to provide support and assistance to their allies crossing through a doorway, in the event that there is an ambush on the other side.

Rapid Stealth Movement: Speed as Security

As already discussed at some length in the preceding article, sometimes it may be necessary to move swiftly to minimize exposure, to quickly establish distance from a pursuer or to expediently reach a safe place.

While the above method discussed for crossing obstacles maximizes silhouette reduction for passing over barriers like walls and fences, there are faster methods for situations in which speed must take priority over stealth, which is the main focus of the next paragraphs. There is also a much broader range of obstacle types to be considered beyond barriers like walls and fences, such as drops, elevated areas and gaps.

Military obstacle course training tends to use a more heuristic approach to learning, largely having participants discover their own ways of negotiating different types of obstacles. Participants typically receive a demonstration of someone else passing through such a course, but are then expected, without much detailed instruction on the finer points, to repeat it themselves. There are, however, other approaches that do not require “re-inventing the wheel” and which facilitate learning the most rapid and efficient means of overcoming obstacles, including the finer intricacies.

Of particular interest in this regard is the training discipline, sport, art and form of self-defense known as parkour (originally, les parcours). While its application is certainly not limited to use outdoors or even urban environments generally, it is especially suited to these and is typically practiced in such settings. It should be noted, however, that there is a distinction between parkour and the related and overlapping discipline of freerunning. Though they share the same foundation and the lines between the two are often blurred, the latter is more an athletic and artistic pursuit, while parkour is more specifically suited to escape and evasion.

Perhaps with roots in French military obstacle course training as well as the experiences in the Paris Fire Brigade of the father of the founder-figure, David Belle (b. 1973), parkour is surely an art form in and of itself, incredibly vast, complex and worthy of detailed study. In fact, it has become increasingly popular and institutionalized, even becoming the subject of serious academic study in the field of Exercise and Sports Science (ESS). It would thus be wise to benefit from the tremendous amount of physical and intellectual effort that have gone into developing and refining the most efficient methods for moving from one point to another in spite of obstacles in between. It is characterized by continuous forward movement.

Here, we regrettably highlight only a handful techniques, focusing on those which we feel are most relevant to escape and evasion. The techniques identified here seem the most appropriate for inclusion in a personal repertoire and training plan intended for escape and evasion. They draw from the impressive and detailed work The Ultimate Parkour & Freerunning Book by Witfeld, Gerling and Pach. There are also numerous other helpful resources, like The Parkour and Freerunning Handbook by Dan Edwardes.

There are of course also an ever-growing number of tutorials and demonstration videos available online, of varying levels of quality. Examples can usually be easily found, for instance, by searching for the French name for a particular technique or skill to be trained followed by the word “parkour.” But the foundational skills and techniques from Witfeld, Gerling and Pach that seemed most relevant to practice for civilian escape and evasion include, with a slightly simplified/modified arrangement to fit the present context:

Balancing (équilibre)

Running (courir)

                Passe muraille (“wall pass”)

                Tic-tac

Jumping (sauter)

                Saut de précision (“precision jump”)

                                One-foot precision jump

                                Two-foot precision jump

                                Running precision jump

                Saut de fond (“depth jump”)

                Wall Dismount

Landing (reception)

                Landing on feet

                                One-foot landing

                                Two-foot landing

                Landing with hand assistance

                Roulade (“roll”)

                Saut de bras (“arm jump”)

Vaulting (passement)

                Step Vault

                Passement rapide (“speed vault”)

                Lazy Vault

                Demi-tour (“turn [vault]”)

Hanging, Swinging and Releasing (lâché and franchissement)

Again, however, this is just a list of some key basic techniques and skills that could prove especially useful for escape and evasion. It cannot convey the impressive efficiency and artistry with which skilled traceurs (practitioners of parkour) move through their environment from point A to point B smoothly and rapidly while negotiating obstacles in between.

Balance (équilibre): Balance is a basic ability that traceurs strive to gain mastery of. It should be practiced whether static or moving and whether on two feet or on all fours. Balance becomes especially crucial at elevated heights. An example might be walking or moving on all fours to cross an elevated beam or narrow ledge.

Running (courir): Running is one of the fundamental forms of human locomotion, a means of physical exercise, a basic stealth movement technique and of course a baseline activity for when one must use speed for escape and evasion. Running is also a basic technique of parkour which can not only be used to move quickly from point A to point B, but it can also be used to overcome obstacles that are within the reach of one’s stride, such as to ascend up a series of stepped surfaces much like if they were simply a staircase of large steps.[6]

There are two particular techniques that use running to overcome obstacles and which were prefigured in reports of the feudal Japanese ninja running up walls or other vertical or nearly vertical surfaces with a technique called shōten no jutsu (“climbing to the heavens,” 昇天の術), which also appears in the training of modern practitioners of the martial art called ninpō (忍法).[7] In parkour, techniques that make use of such running up of walls are referred to with the words passe muraille and tic-tac.

Passe muraille (“wall pass”) involves running toward and up a wall or similar surface to mount and cross that obstacle. Once one has reached the top, it may involve a planche (“plank”), that is with a grip on the top of the wall or other obstacle, “muscling up” on top of it.

Similarly, tic-tac is a technique in which one can gain height by running up to, stepping onto and pushing up and off to one side of a wall or similar surface, such as to facilitate leaping and clearing the top of an adjacent obstacle or grabbing the top of an adjacent wall to then planche up and climb over it.

Jumping (sauter):Prefiguring its importance in parkour, jumping or “flying” skills (hichōjutsu, 飛鳥術) were particularly emphasized as a fundamental ninja skill by Fujita Seiko (1898-1966), described widely as the last Koga ninja,[8] as well as by Itoh Gingetsu[9] and leaping is one of the foundational skills among contemporary practitioners of ninpō, with such techniques as happō tenchi tobi (八方天地飛び, “eight directions, heaven and earth leaping”).[10] Similarly, Fujita described six categories: jumping forwards, backwards, sideways and diagonally along with jumping for height as well as for specific distance, sounding very much like the saut de précision of parkour, which we now turn our attention toward.

Precision jumps can be one-footed, two-footed or performed while running. One-footed precision jumps allow one to cover the least amount of distance, while two-footed precision jumps allow more and running precision jumps allow for covering the greatest amount of distance, though the greater the distance, the more difficult it is to land precisely.

Sauts des fonds (“depth jumps”) consist basically of dropping from a higher level to a lower one. Practitioners of ninpō refer to this as tobi ori (“jumping down,” 飛び降り).[11] Witfeld, Gerling and Pach advise keeping one’s head up and eyes on the targeted landing site during flight to avoid leaning too far forward.[12] A related technique in ninpō is known as tobi komi (飛び込み, “diving”), in which one leaps by diving head and hands first.[13] This is analogous to the parkour technique known as saut de chat (“cat leap”).

The technique known as the “wall dismount” can be used when a drop is too high to simply drop down from while standing. Instead, one lowers oneself to either sit on or hang by the arms from the ledge, wall, etc., and then drop down to the lower level.

Landing (reception): Every jump or drop is followed by a landing. The aim of landing techniques is to safely absorb the force of impact to avoid injury and also to facilitate continued forward movement. Landings may be one-footed, two-footed, on all fours or involve rolling with the entire body.

While one-footed landings are generally, but not always, best suited to leaping at the same level, two-footed landings can be used for these as well as for when there is a substantial height difference between the take-off and landing locations.

One important one-footed landing technique involves landing in a lunge position, from which one can seamlessly transition to running forward. Two-footed landings can also be supplemented with the use of the hands to absorb impact and divert one’s movement.

An even further and more dramatic means of dissipating the force of impact and diverting or converting it into continued forward movement, especially after jumping a longer distance at high speed or dropping to a substantially lower level, is to somersault along the ground or roll (roulade), upon landing.[14]

This is similar to and based on the same principles as how paratroopers are taught to roll upon landing or how the abovementioned ninpō technique known as tobi ori is often completed with a technique known as zenpō kaiten (前方回転, “forward roll”) for this very same purpose.

Lastly, the saut de bras (“arm jump”) involves landing in a position where one is hanging by the arms from an edge, such as the top of a wall or a roof. From there, one can either drop down or muscle up to mount the structure.[15]

Vaulting (passement): Vaulting techniques are designed to overcome obstacles that are between hip and chest height, such as railings and small walls.[16] Like parkour generally, a key aspect of vaults is continuous forward movement beyond the vaulting movement itself. There is a plethora of diverse vaulting techniques, but we limit ourselves here to mentioning four selected vaults that seem the most relevant to escape and evasion while still being relatively feasible to master.

The “step vault” is a good foundational technique to begin with before proceeding to more advanced vaults. It is especially suitable for slower approaches.[17]

After the step vault has been mastered, the “speed vault” (passement rapide) is much easier to accomplish and it has the benefit that it can even be executed at a dead sprint.[18]

Another useful and relatively easily learned movement is the “lazy vault,” which is especially useful when approaching an obstacle from a diagonal angle.[19]

The last type of vault to be mentioned here is the demi-tour (“u-turn [vault],” “turn around [vault]” or simply “turn [vault]”). It involves leaping over an obstacle while supporting oneself with the hands on top of it, turning to face the direction from which one came while passing over the obstacle and then hanging before dropping to a lower level.[20] The practical benefit of this is that if one is leaping over an obstacle that has a drop on the other side, one can use this vault to reduce one’s elevation and momentum before the drop and even to pause and assess before deciding to actually drop.

Lâché and Franchissement

The term lâché (literally meaning to “let loose”) describes movements that involve hanging, swinging from and letting go of an overhead object such as a bar, beam or tree branch. The related body of techniques referred to with the term franchissement (“crossing”) also involve hanging, swinging and letting go, but they specifically entail doing so to pass over an obstacle or through an opening.

Conclusion

In this article, we have addressed a range of techniques, skills and considerations regarding the use of stealth for self-protection when outdoors in urban environments. We have drawn knowledge from works on military operations in urban terrain, but also from elsewhere, especially with regard to parkour, but also “buildering.” In the next article, we shift our attention to operating indoors in urban environments. In this endeavor, practices for “clearing” urban spaces take on a special significance.

Bibliography

Buckley, Andy. “Night Climbing in Cambridge.” InsectNation, 5 June 2007, http://insectnation.org/nightclimbing/nightclimbing.html.

Edwardes, Dan. The Parkour and Freerunning Handbook. London: Virgin Books, 2009.

Fujita, Seiko. The Secrets of Koga-ryu Ninjutsu: A Translation and Editing of Fujita Seiko’s “Ninjutsu kara Spy-sen e” by Don Roley. Trans. Don Roley. Palmer Lake, CO: Freedom to Excel LLC, 2015.

Fujita, Seiko. What is Ninjutsu?. Trans. Eric Shahan. Leipzig, Amazon Distribution GmbH, 2017.

Itoh, Gingetsu. Gendaijin no Ninjutsu. Trans. Eric Shahan. Charleston: CreateSpace, 2014.

Itoh, Gingetsu. Ninjutsu no Gokui. Trans. Eric Shahan. Charleston: CreateSpace, 2014.

Tanemura, Shoto.  Ninpo Bugei, Volume 1:  Fundamental Taijutsu, 7^th Ed. Matsubushi, Japan:  Genbukan World Ninpo Bugei Federation, 2007

Tanemura, Shoto. Ninpo Secrets: Philosophy, History and Techniques, 3^rd Ed. Matsubushi, Japan: Genbukan World Ninpo Bugei Federation, 2003.

US Army, FM 3-06.11 (FM 90-10-1) Combined Arms Operations in Urban Terrain (Washington, DC: Department of the Army, 2002). 

US Army, FM 90-10-1 An Infantryman’s Guide to Combat in Built-Up Areas (Washington, DC: Department of the Army, 1993).

US Army, STP 21-1-SMCT Soldier’s Manual of Common Tasks Warrior Skills Level 1 (Washington, DC: Department of the Army, 2009). Witfeld, Jan, Ilona E. Gerling and Alexander Pach. The Ultimate Parkour & Freerunning Book: Discover Your Possibilities. Maidenhead, UK: Meyer & Meyer Sport, 2011.

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[1] Gingetsu Itoh, Gendaijin no Ninjutsu, trans. Eric Shahan (Charleston: CreateSpace, 2014), 98.

[2] Ibid., 98.

[3] See 071-326-0541 “Perform Movement Techniques During an Urban Operation,” in US Army, STP 21-1-SMCT Soldier’s Manual of Common Tasks Warrior Skills Level 1 (Washington, DC: Department of the Army, 2009).

[4] Buckley, Andy. “Night Climbing in Cambridge.” Insectnation, 5 June 2007, http://insectnation.org/nightclimbing/nightclimbing.html.

[5] Gingetsu Itoh, Gendaijin no Ninjutsu, trans. Eric Shahan (Charleston: CreateSpace, 2014), 151.

[6] Jan Witfeld, Ilona E. Gerling and Alexander Pach, The Ultimate Parkour & Freerunning Book: Discover Your Possibilities (Maidenhead, UK: Meyer & Meyer Sport, 2011), 94-96.

[7] Itoh, Gendaijin No Ninjutsu; Shoto Tanemura, Ninpo Bugei, Volume 1: Fundamental Taijutsu, 7^th Ed. (Matsubushi, Japan:  Genbukan World Ninpo Bugei Federation, 2007), 33; Shoto Tanemura, Ninpo Secrets: Philosophy, History and Techniques, 3^rd Ed. (Matsubushi, Japan: Genbukan World Ninpo Bugei Federation, 2003), 86.

[8] Seiko Fujita, What is Ninjutsu?, trans. Eric Shahan (Leipzig: Amazon Distribution GmbH, 2017), 42-44; Seiko Fujita, The Secrets of Koga-ryu Ninjutsu: A Translation and Editing of Fujita Seiko’s “Ninjutsu kara Spy-sen e” by Don Roley, trans. Don Roley (Palmer Lake, CO: Freedom to Excel LLC, 2015), 134-35.

[9] In particular, Itoh speaks of hikō jizai no jutsu  (飛行自在の術, “the art of flying freely”), see his Gendaijin No Ninjutsu, 103-07.

[10] Tanemura, Ninpo Secrets, 85-86; Tanemura, Fundamental Taijutsu, 32.

[11] Ibid., 33.

[12] Witfeld, Gerling and Pach, The Ultimate Parkour & Freerunning Book, 112.

[13] Tanemura, Fundamental Taijutsu, 33.

[14] Witfeld, Gerling and Pach, The Ultimate Parkour & Freerunning Book, 126-30.

[15] Ibid., 186-91.

[16] Ibid., 130.

[17] Ibid., 132-34.

[18] Ibid., 134-39.

[19] Ibid., 140-43.

[20] Ibid., 166-72.

It seems particularly appropriate that this article follows not only the introductory articles on the fundamentals of stealth for self-protection, since these are prerequisites for urban stealth, but that it also follows immediately after the article Terrain Analysis for Escape and Evasion. In that article, we made reference to the categorization of stealth skills attributed to the feudal Japanese ninja known as the  tenchijin santon no hō (天地人三遁の法, “heaven, earth, man-three methods of escaping”) and more specifically to its subset known as the chiton jūppō (地遁十法, “10 earth methods of escaping). Among these, the discipline of doton (土遁, “earth escape”) is closely related to that of okuton (屋遁, “house escape,” “abode escape,” “roof escape” or “building escape”).

When approaching this topic, it must first be emphasized that stealth for escape and evasion in the context of civilian self-protection should only be attempted when necessary to temporarily avoid interdiction by hostile elements until a safe place or source of assistance can be reached. If in a public area with bystanders around, it would usually be far wiser to attract attention rather than to avoid it. Bystanders could become sources of aid or at the very least, their presence could deter assailants who wish to avoid having witnesses to their intended crime.

Similarly, if a safe place like a populated public area, police station or hospital is nearby, priority should be placed on reaching this place as quickly as possible and getting help immediately. Thus it is imperative to have already identified potential safe places in the vicinity of where you live and work, or are staying and visiting while travelling, as well as areas that you frequent. One should also identify and rehearse travelling along primary and alternate routes to such locations. Such advance preparation must also include knowing the location, routes to and closing and opening times of late-night establishments in the area like restaurants, bars or gas stations.

There may be situations in which safe places or sources of potential aid cannot be reached directly or are not immediately available, like during the nighttime after most have gone home and are asleep or at least indoors. It would be best to avoid being caught in such situations to begin with, but in the event one is and is faced with a potential threat, it may be advisable to employ urban stealth movement to facilitate reaching a safe place or source of aid.

Previous articles addressing individual and group stealth movement provide a foundation which can be applied and adapted to a range of environments. These basics are initially best practiced in natural wilderness settings to reduce the variables and problems that arise when man-made structures and settings are introduced into the equation. Urban environments offer multiple unique challenges as well as opportunities.

The same basic principles and techniques of individual and group stealth movement used in natural settings apply, but with additional considerations. In urban settings, threats may present themselves more immediately, at much closer ranges and from any direction, including from above and below. Thus, further methods must be employed in order to detect and avoid threats in an urban setting.

In two future articles, urban stealth movement methods are divided into those employed outdoors and those used in indoor situations, though there are some guidelines, principles and considerations that apply to both situations. These are the topic of the present article.

General Guidelines for Urban Stealth Movement

The following points should be taken as basic general guidelines for urban stealth:

-Maintain a high degree of situational awareness, since the threat can appear suddenly and at particularly close ranges as well as from any direction, including from above or below.

-Remain cognizant of “dead space” as well as shadows, and when not occupying and using such areas for one’s own concealment and camouflage, give them a wide berth, such as by “cutting the pie” around corners, furniture or bushes.

-Avoid silhouetting, such as when moving past windows and doorways or negotiating obstacles.

-Visually reconnoiter for threats and hazards as well as one’s next position before passing corners, crossing obstacles, traversing open areas or initiating any other movement.

-Identify your next location of camouflage, concealment and cover (CCC) before proceeding to the next.

-Move rapidly between positions of CCC.

-Avoid being exposed in open areas (like courtyards, parks, gardens, squares, streets, alleyways, etc.).

-Make use of dead space and stay in the shadows as well as close to structures or significant vegetation.[1]

The Importance of Sound in Urban Settings

In addition to these general guidelines, we should reiterate how encounters and distance from hostile personnel in urban settings can be at very close ranges when compared with natural settings, thus also elevating the importance of sound. Moreover, echoes off of surfaces can exacerbate any noises produced. Further still, in natural settings like forests, vegetation can hinder the movement of sound waves, thus reducing the chances of being detected audially, whereas open areas in urban spaces present no such barrier, allowing the sound waves produced by one’s movements to travel unobstructed.

Yet the situation is not always so bleak, since in densely populated areas, there may be significant background noise, such as from traffic, and in some places this is true at all hours of the day. These can be used to mask the sounds of one’s own movement, though adversaries may also take advantage of this to mask their own movement.

As a result of such factors as described above, sound is often of greater concern in urban settings than in natural ones. Accordingly, it is important to consider how to reduce and/or mask (through ambient noise) the sounds produced by one’s own activities, such as opening or closing doors as well as simply walking across a surface.

Pertaining to the latter, it is important to be cognizant of the surfaces one is traversing as well as the type of footwear one has on. Gravel and creaking floors are extremely difficult to cross without making compromising noises. In fact, gravel is commonly used outside of residences to deter burglars, just as the so-called “nightingale floors” were used in medieval Japanese castles to make intruders easier to detect. In contrast, grassy earth, such as found on a lawn or in a park, along with clean, hard surfaces like concrete, asphalt or marble, tend to be much easier to cross silently.

Yet this of course also depends on one’s footwear. Dress shoes or high heels produce loud and distinctive sounds while, true to their etymology, sneakers are much more conducive to silent movement, as is going barefoot.

Hence, whenever selecting routes for stealth escape and evasion in urban settings, the nature of the surfaces to be crossed as well as one’s own type of footwear must be factored in. In this same vein, it is important to practice stealth in and around areas that one frequents often, like one’s home and workplace, to ensure an awareness of problem areas as well as places that can be traversed in relative silence to facilitate rapid route selection should the need arise.

Principles of Operating in Urban Terrain

The abovementioned general guidelines for urban stealth movement are relatively sound and applicable in the vast majority of situations when practicing stealth for escape and evasion in urban settings. But there are also a handful of principles for Military Operations in Urban Terrain (MOUT) that may also be helpful here. These include Surprise, Security, Simplicity, Speed and Violence of Action (S4V).

Yet military operations and civilian escape and evasion for self-protection are two very different things. So it must be considered whether or not; and if so, to what extent; these also apply for civilian escape and evasion purposes (or even whether or not they apply to all military operations in all circumstances). We do so with each of these five MOUT principles here, but particularly with the principles of speed and violence of action:

Surprise-In the original military context of this principle, it refers to conducting offensive operations against an enemy force at a time and/or place that they would not expect and not be prepared for. Yet if we reverse the direction of this principle and consider that potential assailants also seek the advantage of surprise, it can provide some valuable insights for situational awareness and preparedness generally.

Criminal and/or terrorist attacks against a specific target (rather than a target of opportunity) are most often conducted at the target’s residence or place of work, where they are not only most predictable (and thus targetable), but also where they may be lulled into a false sense of security due to the familiar and routine nature of these places and the activities they engage in there.

But whether in settings that are familiar or unfamiliar to the intended victim, assailant’s may well seek to exploit situations in which their prospective prey may be distracted to achieve surprise, and thus the upper hand. Some common examples include when their target is engrossed in their mobile phone, entering an ATM PIN or fumbling with their keys outside of their vehicle or a building door.

These insights, however, relate more to personal security practices in general rather than specifically to the topic of this article: urban stealth. So to reverse the direction again for our purposes here, certainly we do not want a pursuer to know or guess what we are doing or where we are going. Thus, we can conceal our intentions and even use deception to mislead (and eventually surprise) pursuers.

This can be achieved, for instance, by basic misdirection, moving in one direction while in view of the pursuer but changing direction once one has left their field of view. This has already been discussed in the introductory article, “Fundamentals of Stealth for Self-Protection I: Introduction and Three Approaches to Hiding,” and it is also an invaluable and fundamental anti-surveillance technique for “losing” a surveillant or other pursuer. This can be done, for example, by turning onto a street and then onto another street while concealed by a building, or also by entering a building and then leaving that building through another exit. Yet the topics of surveillance detection, anti-surveillance, counter-surveillance, etc., are vast and will be discussed in a future article.

Gaining the advantage of surprise is also closely related to two of the other principles of operating in urban terrain discussed below: speed and violence of action.

Security-Security is always important, but given how in urban environments threats can appear quite suddenly, at very close ranges and from any direction, including from above and below, maintaining vigilant security and situational awareness becomes especially crucial in urban settings.

Simplicity-Similarly, keeping plans simple is always a good rule of thumb for any setting, but it is especially true for urban environments, which can be highly complex in and of themselves. Thus, to avoid making the situation unnecessarily more complex and difficult to manage, echoing the sentiments of Occam’s Razor, it is best to keep plans as simple as possible. This reduces the number of variables that could go wrong, makes the plan easier to execute (which is especially important in situations of heightened stress), allows for flexibly adapting to rapidly changing circumstances and, if operating in a group, facilitates ease of communication and the understanding of plans. Such simplicity should also extend to the routes selected for use. Safe places and specific primary and alternate routes to get there should also be selected and rehearsed when staying in an unfamiliar area. Furthermore, although memorizing all of the streets in a new city is unrealistic, one should have a basic familiarity with the general layout and street plan.

Speed-Obviously, we want to choose the fastest and most direct route possible to reach a safe place. But speed is of course not the only factor, as such choices as route selection and the movement techniques used must also be made in light of, for instance, safety and security, particularly with regard to the considerations of observation and CCC.

Yet there are also variables like the enemy situation and whether one is being actively pursued or simply in a potentially dangerous situation, and if the adversary or potential adversary has knowledge of one’s location and/or intended destination and the route to be taken there.

The complexity of the question of whether speed is best in urban environments can be illuminated through an anecdote from personal experience. When the present author was a platoon leader carrying out various types of mounted patrols in a major city in the Middle East in 2005, there was a heated debate about whether it was best to move quickly (as the MOUT principles dictate) or to move slowly (in direct contradiction to these earlier-established MOUT principles).

The formerly doctrinally sound means of operating in urban terrain demanded speed, allowing speed to serve as one’s security by reducing exposure to enemy observation and targetability by enemy ambushes. Yet such speed also had drawbacks, which led to a change in doctrine for this particular theater of operation.

Foremost among these disadvantages include how such speed increases the risk of encounters leading to casualties among innocent civilians. This was a counterinsurgency (COIN) fight, in which the guerrillas moved “amongst the people as a fish swims in the sea,” to quote Mao Zedong’s “little red book.” It was not the meeting of two conventional military forces in an urban area, like the Battle of Stalingrad.

Another disadvantage was that increased speed decreases one’s ability to scan for threats. If blowing past the kill zone of a small arms fire ambush in a heavily armored vehicle, this may not be as problematic, but if the more common and more dangerous threat is improvised explosives devices (IEDs) that are victim-operated (booby traps), or command-operated by a competent operator, and have the ability to penetrate the armor of one’s vehicle, then it may be better to slow down and try to find such IEDs before setting them off or moving near them. This is especially true if such slowness also supports the overall COIN mission and helps to prevent civilian casualties.

This doctrinal shift by theoreticians was not readily accepted by all of those actually carrying out missions on the ground. Such tension between the old established doctrine of speed as security versus the new philosophy of slow and careful movement to prioritize detecting IED threats could be seen in flyers and pamphlets distributed to convoy personnel with headlines like “You Can’t Outrun the Blast.”

Yet even in earlier manuals, the issue was not so clear. A version of the Ranger Handbook dating from 2000, just before the “War on Terror” began, also exhibits some ambiguity and an impetus to balance speed and caution.

While it does first advise allowing speed to act as one’s security, it also seems to actually pay more attention to caution. It does so by recommending to “Move in a careful hurry,” pointing to the saying that “Slow is smooth, and smooth is fast,” as well as recommending to “Never move faster than you can accurately engage targets,” and of course, “Exercise tactical patience.”

Notwithstanding the vastly different types of activities and objectives, if modern professional militaries cannot decide whether or not it is better to move quickly or slowly through urban terrain, what is the average individual faced with danger in an urban environment to do? Can they choose any course of action with certainty or confidence?

The answer proposed here to the question of whether to move quickly or slowly in urban settings is that “it depends.” Every situation is different and it is best to use one’s own judgement for one’s particular situation as to whether it is better to move with speed or with slower cautious movement.

To help in this, we consider some of the advantages and disadvantages of fast as well as of slow movement below.

It is ultimately argued that, overall, it seems that slow movement is in fact probably the best default mode for civilian escape and evasion, changing to fast movement only in situations where it becomes more beneficial or necessary.

This advice (as well as the entire discussion below) is actually applicable for all situations, whether urban or rural. Yet we have treated this in depth here because, first, this thesis runs counter to the fourth of the S4V principles of MOUT, and second, urban environments may require more frequent alternation between slow and fast movement, thus a clear understanding of when to use which approach is especially important.

Fast Movement Advantages

-Reduces duration of exposure in open areas

-Makes it more difficult to be targeted or ambushed

-Rapidly creates distance between oneself and hostile elements

-Allows for reaching a safe place sooner

Fast Movement Disadvantages

-Produces more noise, higher risk of being compromised audially

-The eye detects rapid movement easily, and is in fact drawn to it, higher risk of being compromised visually

-More difficult to detect threats before encountering them

-Higher risk of accidents and injury

-Higher physical exertion

Slow Movement Advantages

-Produces less noise, lower risk of being compromised audially

-The eye does not detect slow and steady movement as easily as rapid and erratic movement, lower risk of being compromised visually

-Can more easily detect threats to oneself before encountering them

-Lower risk of accidents and injury

-Lower physical exertion

Slow Movement Disadvantages

-Increases duration of exposure in open areas

-It is easier for the enemy to target you

-Is slow to create distance between oneself and hostile elements

-Takes longer to reach a safe place or other objective location

To summarize the above lists of pros and cons, rapid movement makes it harder for the enemy to ambush you as well as quickly increases the speed at which you can gain distance between yourself and an adversary along with increasing the speed in which you can reach a safe place or other objective. These benefits come at the cost of reducing stealth (with the exception of quickly traversing open areas to risk exposure), reducing the ability to identify threats before encountering them, a higher risk of accidents and injury as well as a higher degree of physical exertion.

Conversely, slow movement favors stealth (with the exception of crossing open areas) as well as the ability to identify threats before encountering them. It also lessens the risk of accidents and injury and requires a lesser amount of physical exertion Yet the drawbacks to slow movement are that it makes it easier to be targeted by an ambush and slower to distance oneself from an adversary or reach a safe place or other objective. These pros and cons are also summarized in the following table:

Having laid out the advantages and disadvantages of fast versus slow movement in urban settings, we now seek to determine when each approach would be appropriate. The following are probably the most relevant questions to ask in this regard.

1-Does the enemy see you or know where you are?

If so, then CCC is no longer an immediate priority and, while one should remain alert to the possibility of any other threats that may emerge, for the time being, avoiding and escaping the threat that has been identified should be the focus. Thus, speed is probably the better choice here, whether fleeing directly to a safe place or to “lose them” and find good CCC until one can reach a safe place.

If they do not know your location or you are unsure, then it may be better to err on the side of caution, using slow movement and stealth to prevent them from finding you and beginning pursuit.

2-Do you know where the enemy is?

If so, then you must use your judgement; based on such variables as distance, available CCC, weather conditions, etc.; as to whether you can move quickly without compromising your position. Though since you know where the enemy is, you may be able to assume some risk and move more quickly while traversing areas where you know you will not run into them, walk into their ambush or expose yourself to them.

If you do not know where the enemy is, however, then it may be better to move more slowly and cautiously, thus increasing your chances of spotting them before they spot you.

3-If you move as quickly as you reasonably can, are you likely to reach a safe place before the enemy can intercept or otherwise attack you?

If yes, then speed is likely preferred, but if not, then it may be better to exercise caution and move slowly to avoid being detected. If the enemy already knows your location, as already discussed above, it may be better to move speedily to lose them and reach the nearest CCC and then to move more slowly until you reach your objective.

4-Are there any medical emergencies, particularly those that involve threats to life, limb or eyesight, that require immediate attention?

If so, then speed is clearly of substantial importance, though this has to be balanced against the risk of taking on further casualties.

5-Are there other compelling reasons why there is a time sensitive need to reach a safe place or other objective?

Examples of such other compelling reasons include the risk of exposure in extreme weather conditions, when sunset is disadvantageous, when sunrise is disadvantageous or the approaching closing times of an intended safe haven like a shopping center. These also clearly make speed desirable, but only if it can be achieved without incurring worse consequences.

6-Are you in a familiar area?

Familiarity with the area you are operating in may allow you to move with greater certainty and thus also speed. It may also help you to more easily identify anomalous deviations from the baseline norm of a given area, deviations which may indicate a potential threat. If you are in an unfamiliar area, however, it may be better to move more cautiously, and thus slowly.

7-How far away are you from your destination?

Greater distances require you to pace yourself, moving slowly and taking frequent breaks. Also remember, unless there is immediate danger at your current location, do not move until you have some plan for where you are going and why.

8-Is maintaining stealth feasible?

That is to say, is sufficient CCC available to remain visually undetected and does the environment and distance from one’s adversary allow for a reasonable expectation of remaining audially undetected? If it is unreasonable to think that stealth can be maintained, such as if there is a lack of concealment or one must walk within earshot/close proximity of an adversary on potentially compromising surfaces like gravel or creaking wooden floors, then there is no longer any reason to move slowly in an attempt to maintain stealth. The advantage of stealth has already been lost, so it is perhaps better to make use of the advantages afforded by speed.

These are just some considerations on this topic that the present author felt were important. Ultimately, the choice of rapid or slow movement must be your own, as it is you who knows your situation best and who must live with any consequences that may result from such a choice. That said, however, do not allow yourself to be trapped in “paralysis by analysis.” Perhaps what is most important is to make a rational choice based on the information you have and to execute it with full conviction, though of course with the flexibility to change should new information or circumstances require.

Though in conclusion, overall, it seems that slow movement is probably the best default mode for civilian escape and evasion, changing to fast movement only in situations where it becomes more beneficial or necessary. Examples of when it would be advisable to adopt fast movement include when crossing an open area, when passing through a potential ambush site (though open areas and potential ambush sites should be bypassed if at all possible, thus eliminating the need for speed), when breaking contact with the enemy, when there is some compelling reason to reach the destination before a certain time as well as when avoiding detection through stealth is no longer feasible.

The last point about whether or not stealth is feasible, however, leads especially well into the next MOUT principle, namely:

Violence of Action-The fifth and final principle of MOUT is violence of action, which according to the Ranger Handbook, is comprised of “Eliminat[ing] the enemy with sudden, explosive force.” Obviously, in a self-protection scenario, engaging with and “eliminating” an enemy is far inferior to detecting and evading them prior to any such encounter ever having a chance to unfold.

Yet unfortunately, this ideal of avoidance cannot always be realized. There may be situations in which one is in very close proximity or is otherwise unable to avoid a direct encounter with an adversary. It is at times such as these that violence of action becomes crucial. But even then, the term “violence” may be too strong, since this term involves the use of force to intentionally damage, hurt or kill. Instead, we might speak more compassionately of being dynamic, committed, vigorous or energetic. This kind of directed and focused willpower is especially important in clearing urban spaces (which will be discussed in greater detail in the third article of this series) when such action is combined with speed and facilitates surprise.

Whatever terms we use, this may unfortunately come to involve weapons or the use of unarmed striking, grappling and escapes. There are also various objectives one may be seeking to achieve in carrying out such acts. These include breaking free from others’ attempts to physically capture/restrain oneself, preemptively attacking to distract, off-balance or incapacitate an adversary to facilitate one’s escape or to restrain an attacker, such as to facilitate the escape of others, prevent them from harming others and/or detain them until law enforcement can arrive.

Laws pertaining to the appropriate use of force in self-protection vary greatly between countries and also between localities within the same country. Thus, the reader is advised to familiarize themselves with the relevant laws in their own area as well as in areas where they may be travelling, but above all, to take every possible and reasonable measure to avoid the need to use force.

That said, when a clear threat has been positively identified, the decision to engage with the appropriate level of force must be made rapidly and executed immediately and with a level of vigor as if one’s life and the lives of one’s loved ones depend on it, because they very well may. To quote the Ranger Handbook again, this should be executed “with sudden, explosive force.”

Combining speed and violence of action increases the likelihood that one will be able to surprise the enemy, thereby depriving them of sufficient time to react.

Furthermore, it is not just physical violence of action that is required. For this to be successful, physical action must be backed up by a mental readiness to immediately and vigorously close with and neutralize the threat. On violence of action, the manual Combined Arms Operations in Urban Terrain states, “It is not limited to the application of firepower only, but also involves a soldier mind-set of complete domination.”[2]

Yet to reemphasize, before resorting to physical violence, it is essential to first know that there is a credible threat, then to exhaust all means possible to avoid or escape from that threat, or if there is any way possible, to diffuse the situation, and then only as a last resort, to respond proportionately to that threat, commensurate with the laws in one’s locality.

But now, having covered some basic guidelines and principles for operating in urban terrain, with an emphasis on stealth for escape and evasion, the next two articles will respectively focus on urban stealth movement outdoors and indoors, though there is actually much overlap between these two topics. Later articles will also address different aspects of operating in urban terrain, such as pertaining to surveillance detection and countermeasures.

Bibliography

Itoh, Gingetsu. Gendaijin no Ninjutsu. Trans. Eric Shahan. Charleston: CreateSpace, 2014.

Itoh, Gingetsu. Ninjutsu no Gokui. Trans. Eric Shahan. Charleston: CreateSpace, 2014.

Tanemura, Shoto. Ninpo Secrets: Philosophy, History and Techniques, 3^rd Ed. Matsubushi, Japan: Genbukan World Ninpo Bugei Federation, 2003.

US Army, FM 3-06.11 (FM 90-10-1) Combined Arms Operations in Urban Terrain (Washington, DC: Department of the Army, 2002).  

US Army, FM 90-10-1 An Infantryman’s Guide to Combat in Built-Up Areas (Washington, DC: Department of the Army, 1993).

US Army, SH 21-76 The Ranger Handbook (Fort Benning, GA: Ranger Training Brigade – United States Army Infantry School, 2011).

US Army, STP 21-1-SMCT Soldier’s Manual of Common Tasks Warrior Skills Level 1 (Washington, DC: Department of the Army, 2009).

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[1] These guidelines are largely drawn from, but have further expounded upon those found in the section 071-326-0541 “Perform Movement Techniques During an Urban Operation,” in US Army, STP 21-1-SMCT Soldier’s Manual of Common Tasks Warrior Skills Level 1 (Washington, DC: Department of the Army, 2009).

[2] US Army, FM 3-06.11 (FM 90-10-1) Combined Arms Operations in Urban Terrain (Washington, DC: Department of the Army, 2002), 3-24.

As noted in the earlier article on weather analysis, when planning for any kind of undertaking, but especially for escape and evasion, it is essential to consider how weather, terrain and human factors will impact oneself, the members of one’s group, equipment used and the ability to accomplish the intended objective. It is also of course crucial to consider how these factors may impact any pursuers or adversaries. Such analysis involves figuring out how to harmonize and fit in with the way the universe works, how it operates, or what has been called the scheme of totality or the law of heaven.

Chiton Jūppō (地遁十法, “10 Earth Methods of Escaping”)

In the article on weather analysis, we pointed to the system of thirty methods for escape and evasion that have been attributed to the Japanese ninja, namely, the tenchijin santon no hō (天地人三遁の法, “heaven, earth, man-three methods of escaping”). We also enumerated the first set of ten, that is the tenton juppō (天遁十法, “ten heaven methods of escaping/disappearing”). Here, it seems prudent to refer to the second ten-fold set, the chiton jūppō (地遁十法, “10 earth methods of escaping), which includes mokuton (木遁, “wood escape”), sōton (草遁, “grass escape”), katon (火遁, “fire escape”), enton (煙遁, “smoke escape”), doton (土遁, “earth escape”), okuton (屋遁, “house escape”), kinton (金遁, “metal escape”), setton (石遁, “stone escape”), suiton (水遁, “water escape”) and yuton (湯遁, “hot water escape”).

Obviously, these “ten earth methods of escaping” cover a large range of topics, from operating in urban terrain to incendiary warfare and amphibious or naval operations. Here, however, let’s look to what is perhaps the most central and important of these ten earth methods, and in fact, of all the thirty methods: doton (土遁, “earth escape”). For some idea of the significance attributed to this method, Tanemura Shoto states that “from Doton comes all other techniques.”[1] Similarly, Fujita Seiko emphasizes its importance by saying that it is the method that is most likely to keep one safe.[2]

Moreover, Itoh Gingetsu provides a six-fold typology of the applications of doton. These include taking advantage of the shape of the terrain for concealment (using dead space), blending with its color, relying on the consistency of the soil to serve as a distractor or blinding agent by throwing it at one’s opponent, taking advantage of steep ground and the resulting power of gravity along with relying on difficult terrain with poor trafficability to obstruct pursuers. The sixth and final category of doton he provides is a catchall for everything not included in the tenchijin santon no ho, since everything in our human experience has some relation to the earth to some degree or another. Hence, he highlights not only the centrality of doton, but also how the ninja did not limit themselves with regard to the means they worked with to achieve their ends.[3]

Contemporary Military Terrain Analysis

The above-described systematic approach to capitalizing on the advantages provided by terrain has corollaries with the terrain analysis performed by modern militaries. Such can offer valuable insights for escape and evasion as an approach to self-defense.

To begin with, important for terrain analysis is being able to identify terrain features, both directly in person and on a map by reading contour lines. This facilitates planning and communication as well as orientation and land navigation by terrain association.

The US Army divides terrain features into five major, three minor and two supplementary or man-made features. The five major terrain features are hill, valley, ridge, saddle and depression. The three minor terrain features include draw, spur and cliff, while the two man-made features are cut and fill.[4] In addition to these, when analyzing terrain, one must also take into account bodies of water, significant vegetation and man-made structures like urban areas, buildings and fences.

But terrain analysis is not simply identifying the different terrain features along your route, at your objective and in your area of operation. It must go a step further by analyzing how those features may facilitate or hinder the accomplishment of your aims, as well as those of potential pursuers or adversaries, along with how weather factors interact with terrain features.

So, for some examples, hilltops provide good observation, ridges offer not only good observation but also ease of travel, valleys and draws can contain water, saddles can provide protection from wind for campsites and steep terrain like cliffs and mountains or rivers and fences act as obstacles to movement. Perhaps the best-known terrain advantage is occupying higher ground than one’s adversary. This is clearly advantageous for the use of firearms and other projectile weapons, but as just noted, it also facilitates observation (as well as signaling for help), not to mention how, as just alluded to, gravity itself acts as an obstacle and inhibiting factor when attempting to ascend steep terrain, while it can substantially ease descent.

To this analytical end and analogous to the five military aspects of weather, there are also five aspects of terrain which bear special significance. These are summarized in the acronym OCOKA (Observation, Camouflage, Concealment and Cover, Obstacles, Key Terrain, Avenues of Approach), covered here in a slightly modified order (OCOAK) for clarity.[5] OCOKA is a mnemonic device for recalling the main points to consider when conducting terrain analysis for military operations. Yet these same points can also be applied to the terrain analysis conducted by the average individual practicing stealth as a hobby or as a means of self-protection.

Before proceeding to discuss each aspect of OCOKA individually, it is worth noting that there is substantial interplay between the different elements thereof. First, there are two pairs within this set of five which are interrelated, or even complementary, in much the same way as the Taoist concepts of yin 陰 and yang 陽 (or in and yō in Japanese). These two pairs are 1.) observation vis-à-vis camouflage, cover and concealment (CCC), along with 2.) obstacles vis-à-vis avenues of approach. Second, the fifth element of key terrain, much like the notion of kū or sora (空, “heaven,” “sky” or “void”), both combines and transcends the other four elements. We will go into further detail on these themes below.

But whether understanding one’s general area of operations, selecting a quite temporary location for hiding or for an overnight patrol base, or selecting a route to travel along, the following are important terrain factors to consider:

O – Observation: Choose locations, areas and routes that allow for good observation of one’s surroundings, particularly avenues of approach, key terrain and, if near one’s ultimate destination, the objective itself. Here we discuss this in terms of one’s own ability to observe, but an important aspect of terrain analysis is also considering the vantage points of others, whether enemies or potential sources of aid to which one can signal. The same concepts apply when analyzing from these other perspectives.

As already alluded to above, this first OCOKA factor of observation is inextricably linked with, while seemingly diametrically opposed to, the second OCOKA factor: CCC. For good observation, one must have unobstructed line of sight (LOS) for oneself, but while also being camouflaged, covered and concealed from enemy observation and fire. Thus, a balance must be achieved to maintain both good observation as well as good CCC.

For a significant example, standing on the topographical crest of a hill generally allows for excellent observation in all directions, though it may not offer the best opportunities for CCC. The military crest, however, provides good observation in around 180 degrees, depending on the terrain and any obstructions to a clear LOS, but substantially better CCC, reducing the risk of exposure from silhouetting, increasing opportunities for blending and giving greater cover (if situated on the reverse slope, discussed below). This seems like a reasonable compromise. Hence, moving along and/or taking up positions on the military crest is especially conducive to stealth.

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It is important to distinguish between two types of military crest, namely, the reverse and forward military crests. The reverse military crest is on the reverse slope, the side away from an enemy or observer. It allows for superior concealment, though observation of the enemy is greatly limited. The forward military crest, however, is on the forward slope, that which faces the enemy/observer. In contrast, it provides better observation of adversaries or pursuers, but fewer possibilities for concealment provided by the terrain itself, though this can be compensated for by relying more on camouflage and blending as well as using available vegetation or man-made structures for concealment.

As already noted in the article on target indicators, and for another example of balancing observation and CCC, when observing from behind concealment, it is best to look under, around or through, rather than over, so as to avoid silhouetting. Also, be aware of your background for the same purpose (to avoid silhouetting) as well as to facilitate camouflage by blending with that background. But now we turn more fully to the topic of CCC itself.

C – Camouflage, Concealment and Cover: Select areas, locations and/or routes that offer sufficient opportunities to blend in and/or conceal yourself, and if necessary, protect from bullets. CCC has already been addressed at length in the series of articles entitled, “Fundamentals of Stealth for Self-Protection,” especially “Introduction and Three Approaches to Hiding” and “Target Indicators.” The full contents of that series will not be recounted here. Instead, we will make a few notes pertaining specifically to terrain and its relationship to CCC.

When stealth is imperative, priority should be accorded above all to remaining within 1.) the dead space afforded by the terrain (including being behind vegetation and man-made structures), followed by 2.) staying within shadows and lastly, 3.) striving to blend with the environment with respect to color, contrast and texture. Of course, it is not so simple as one approach being selected instead of the other two, as these must all be used in combination with respect to different observer vantage points. In fact, all three may well, and if possible should, be used simultaneously to hinder detection from any single vantage point. For instance, an ideal combination would be remaining partially concealed behind a wall of foliage, within the shadows afforded by such vegetation and while approximating the environment in terms of color, contrast and texture with sources of light and shine eliminated or subdued. Moreover, when moving, one must use whichever of these (dead space, shadows and blending), or combination thereof, is available at any given point along one’s route.

Dead Space

To elaborate, in terms of avoiding visual detection, by far the most effective and certain means is by operating within dead space. Dead space is an area that cannot be observed from a particular position because of barriers or obstructions to LoS/observation like terrain, man-made structures and dense layers of vegetation. Thus, remaining within dead space by being on the reverse slope as well as moving or positioning oneself in ditches and depressions or behind buildings or layers of significant vegetation obstructs the observer’s vision, thereby concealing oneself.

Such concealment will of course hinder one’s own observation, however, and cannot be relied upon exclusively if one is to maintain appropriate awareness of one’s surroundings. Here, the above-described precautionary measures for observing from behind concealment come into play, namely, looking through, under or around rather than over (unless there is a suitable background and/or foreground obstructions to facilitate blending).

We might also speak of “partial dead space,” where one may not be entirely concealed, such as behind a layer of relatively dense foliage, but the extent of concealment is so great that an observer would have to investigate very thoroughly to discover one’s presence. Such partial concealment has the benefit of allowing for observation by peering through its gaps.

Shadows

As already discussed and demonstrated in the article on target indicators, shadows significantly facilitate camouflage and should especially be used in situations when it is impractical or impossible to remain completely, or even just partially, concealed within dead space. When static, one should take up positions within shadows and when moving, one should stay within shadows as best as possible, or follow the “shadow trails,” so to speak. This applies as much to when operating in daylight as it does to being in darkness.

There are a number of factors that make shadows so effective and useful for camouflage. These include how the human eye does not perceive color in darkness, how differences in contrast and texture are also muted to varying degrees and how potentially reflective surfaces are exposed to fewer sources of light to reflect. It is particularly efficacious to remain within the deepest, darkest part of a shadow (the umbra) as opposed to its lighter periphery (the penumbra).

Due to the abovementioned factors, shadows can instantly facilitate one’s efforts at blending, thus allowing one to seemingly disappear immediately and without resorting to additional measures. Thus, shadows offer the next best option after dead space (and partial dead space). They also offer the added benefit of being able to observe, something that is also true of blending, the topic to which we now turn.

Blending

While, as just noted, shadows significantly facilitate blending, here we are referring specifically to blending with the environment in terms of color, contrast and texture, not to mention reducing or eliminating sources of shine and light. Hence, this discussion applies whether or not one has made use of shadows to facilitate such blending.

One may be able to blend with one’s surroundings by simply taking up a position in or moving through an area that already roughly approximates the color, contrast and texture of one’s person, clothing and equipment as is and without modification. For instance, it would be unwise to position oneself against a light-colored background while wearing dark clothing, or a dark-colored background with light clothing, but if in front of a light background with light clothing or a dark background with dark clothing, one may not stand out quite so much as in the former situations.

It is of course also possible to take extra measures, such as wearing camouflage clothing or a ghillie suit, applying natural or artificial materials for camouflage, dying one’s clothing, covering and/or painting exposed skin and/or hair that might give one away, etc. Yet such measures require forethought and/or time to execute. It is not only unrealistic, but also neurotic to strive to be perpetually prepared to blend with one’s surroundings. Moreover, the time to implement such measures may not be available. It is thus hoped that the reason for emphasizing the use of dead space and then shadows over attempting to blend now makes some sense to the reader.

Final Notes on Terrain and CCC/Stealth

On a related topic, while not usually considered with respect to conventional military terrain analysis, for the purposes of stealth as a means of self-protection, the acoustics of the terrain may also be important to consider. Thus, we may factor in whether sound will be absorbed, such as by thick vegetation or soil, or whether it will echo, bouncing off of surfaces like rock, concrete, metal or glass.

As with all of the OCOKA considerations, in addition to analyzing terrain in terms of the opportunities for CCC that it can provide oneself, it should also be analyzed with respect to the opportunities for CCC that it can afford to enemies. Identified sources of enemy CCC, such as dead space, shadows and significant vegetation should be noted and treated with a level of caution that is proportionate to the assessed level of risk.

When planning routes, it is important to identify danger areas. These are places where one may be exposed to enemy observation and/or fire due to the absence of sufficient CCC. We can speak of small or large open danger areas, like a clearing in a forest, a field, a lawn or an open courtyard, as well as of linear danger areas, like trails, roads, streets and streams or rivers. Wherever possible, bypass danger areas or use the appropriate individual and collective movement techniques to traverse them, which brings us to another point.

Terrain characteristics providing dead space, shadows or opportunities for blending, or the lack thereof, not only dictate the locations and routes in which one is operating, but they also determine the movement techniques used to traverse through those areas and routes. This is true at both the individual and the collective level. For further details, see the articles entitled “Individual Stealth Movement” and “Group Stealth Movement.” The below image, taken from a US Army field manual, illustrates how the availability of CCC provided by the terrain dictates not only route selection, but also the individual movement techniques used to traverse that route.

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Similarly, terrain features, in conjunction with the assessed or known distance from potential adversaries and objective areas, help one to decide when to transition between simple movement, much as one would perform while hiking for leisure, and more cautious and stealthy tactical maneuvering. This is important because the latter form of movement and level of awareness is impractical to maintain for extended periods or over long distances. If the risk of detection is low for a particular portion of one’s route, then the mental and physical energy required for strictly executed tactical movement might be better spent in other ways or preserved for later use, such as in surmounting obstacles, the next topic of discussion.

Camouflaging and Concealing Intention

But before leaving the topic of CCC altogether, beyond concealing one’s actual physical form, it is also possible to hide one’s intentions and/or identity while being physically visible. This is illustrated in the difference between modern infantry carrying out their mission under actual physical CCC and spies pursuing their ends while physically visible but with their identities and intentions concealed, camouflaged or disguised. Such a distinction is found in the divisions of innin (陰忍, “shadow method”) and yōnin (陽忍, “sunlight method”) as found in the classic text on ninjutsu known as the Bansenshukai (1676). With the latter “sunlight” approach, one relies not on opportunities the terrain affords in terms of dead space, shadows and blending to hide one’s physical form, but on what has been called cover for status and cover for action that the environment may provide. Such hiding in plain sight could be used by oneself for “going gray” to avoid be singled out as a target or by adversaries to conceal their intentions while conducting surveillance or carrying out an attack. This topic is only mentioned here, but will be discussed further in other articles.

O – Obstacles: Identify obstacles and how they could affect your own mobility as well as that of any enemy or rescue personnel. Obstacles may simply slow down one’s movement or it may be hindered altogether. Examples of obstacles include bodies of water, dense vegetation, steep terrain, marshland, man-made structures like fences, walls and buildings or crowded city streets.

Bodies of water, if not circumvented, must be crossed by wading or swimming across or using special equipment like watercraft or a rope. Dense vegetation, marshland and steep terrain all significantly slow movement. The latter may be impossible without special equipment like climbing/mountaineering gear and the necessary knowledge and proficiency in using them. Likewise, such obstacles may be completely untraversable in a land vehicle, which obviously cannot drive through densely arrayed trees or up a cliff, and which could become mired in wetlands. Fences may be scaled, dug under or cut through, but this too slows one down as well as increases the risk of discovery, whether during the process of breaching or after its completion. Moreover, obstacles emplaced by human beings may very well be under observation.

When conducting terrain analysis while planning one’s route, it is thus imperative to consider whether one (and if applicable, the members of one’s group) has the necessary equipment (if any is required), training, physical ability and emotional resolve or willpower necessary to overcome a given obstacle. One must also consider the risk of exposure while crossing a given obstacle.

Hence, after obstacles have been identified, for each one, ask whether or not there are reasonable and expedient possibilities for circumventing these obstacles. If not, then the next question is whether or not any special equipment and/or skills are needed to overcome the identified obstacles and whether one has these or suitably expedient substitutes. It is also necessary to assess whether or not one has the physical ability to surmount a given obstacle, whether in terms of one’s level of physical fitness, degree of restedness or other limitations such as height, weight or a medical handicap. Also take stock of one’s level of morale and motivation to determine whether or not one has the willpower, a finite resource, to follow through in crossing the obstacle to completion.

The same considerations should be taken into account with regard to all members of one’s group. Also take into account whether the degree of exposure involved in crossing the obstacle entails an acceptable level of risk. If the obstacle is ultimately determined to be insurmountable or impractical, then it is of course necessary to resort to circumventing it despite the inconveniences and delays involved. This same process is repeated for all obstacles along one’s selected primary and alternative routes.

But beyond avoiding obstacles or determining the feasibility of negotiating them, it is also necessary to consider how obstacles could prevent others from finding and/or reaching you. In particular, we are referring here to any hostile elements as well as to any potential sources of aid, like rescue crews.

Obstacles and Enemy Personnel

First, pertaining to adversaries, when planning a route and also when choosing a static location, such as for a campsite, one may deliberately select difficult terrain to do the unexpected, to camp in a site that no pursuer would suspect or to move along a route or approach from a direction that no one would conceive of (like the example of Hannibal crossing the Alps mentioned below).

In any case, whether you are static or moving, it is advantageous to place obstacles between oneself and one’s enemies to prevent or at least to delay their attempts to reach you. Using the well-known example of higher ground as an advantage of terrain, if the enemy has to climb up a steep slope to reach you, then gravity will be working against their efforts to do so and will substantially slow their advance, hopefully allowing you the time necessary to escape. Of course, other obstacles, like dense vegetation or swampy terrain, can be used in the same way. In static positions, such obstacles may also act as early warning systems, since, for instance, the enemy breaking brush or sloshing through mud or water to reach you may certainly alert you to their presence well in advance.

Using obstacles to hinder an enemy’s approach can also help to focus one’s own security efforts by allowing one to concentrate their attention on the most likely enemy avenues of approach. Of course, as famously demonstrated by Hannibal’s crossing of the Alps with elephants in 218 BC, the presence of an obstacle does not guarantee that an enemy will not approach from that direction. Thus, while one may focus their attention on the most likely avenues of approach, less likely ones cannot be ignored.

It is also important to consider that a particular route may be trafficable to someone on foot but intrafficable for vehicles. If one’s pursuers are in vehicles, choosing a route through a dense forest or a crowded pedestrian area basically forces them to dismount and continue their pursuit on foot, thus at least negating any advantage provided by their being in vehicles.

On a final note regarding the use of obstacles to inhibit the approach of enemies, it is important to have identified avenues of egress so that these same protective obstacles do not prevent one’s own escape should the need arise.

Obstacles and Rescue Personnel

In contrast to using obstacles to hinder the approach of adversaries, in the case of needing to be rescued, it is of course preferred to have as few obstacles as possible between oneself and potential sources of aid. Being located near or in an inhabited area and on a high-speed avenue of approach like a road is highly preferred over being off in the hinterlands somewhere, away from all civilization. Moreover, while hopefully no average citizens reading this will ever have to evade an adversary that possesses aviation assets, aerial avenues of approach and whether there is sufficient clearance for a rescue helicopter to land safely are worth considering. Rescues without landing are certainly possible, but they are not ideal.

A – Avenues of Approach: Identify clear routes and natural lines of drift (NLDs, namely, the routes most logical to be taken when moving from one point to another due to offering the least resistance and obstacles), including especially high-speed avenues of approach like trails and roads, and consider how these could be used by oneself for general movement, escape and evasion as well as by others, like one’s adversaries or rescue teams, in reaching one’s location or decisive terrain (described below).

Avenues of approach need not necessarily be straight lines, as they may meander around obstacles and changing topography. Moreover, in terms of size, they may constitute quite broad movement corridors like an open field, miniscule foot trails or anything in between. They may be by air, sea or land, or even subterranean. They may be traversable by vehicle, foot or both. In urban settings, one must consider street design, including noting one-way streets, along with the various ways of getting in and out of any relevant buildings, as well as moving within them, such as doors, windows, fire escapes, roof access points, hallways, stairwells, etc.

Route Planning

Routes must be selected for a variety of reasons, including for the accomplishment of one’s overall mission as well as for supporting tasks like resupply, water acquisition, medical evacuation or exfiltration from a particular location, such as a bivouac site or a building. When weighing the advantages and disadvantages of identified routes for one’s own use, important factors to take into account include known or suspected locations of the enemy, distance to be travelled, requirements for fuel, food, water and rest, sources of such supplies while en route, trafficability of the terrain, speed of movement and whether or not there are significant obstacles, along with the degree of CCC and observation afforded while traversing such routes.

Also consider important landmarks or terrain features which can serve as waypoints to track one’s progress as well as to aid in navigation through terrain association. In this regard, one may choose to travel parallel to a linear terrain feature like a road, trail, river or ridgeline. This is a land navigation technique known as “handrailing.” One could also use such a linear feature as a “backstop” to know when one has gone too far. It is also possible to plan a “panic azimuth” that leads to such a linear feature to help in reorientation should one become lost. Routes may avoid obstacles by contouring around them or by boxing around them with four ninety-degree turns (RLLR or LRRL).

Channelized Terrain and Choke Points

It is important to identify “channelized terrain” and “choke points” along one’s selected routes, both because of the limitations they entail as well as because they are potential sites for an ambush. If an ambush is expected or even simply possible, the need to identify these is essential.

Channelized terrain forces one to follow a particular route, therefore making one highly predictable and thus easier for the enemy to target. Examples include bridges, overpasses, tunnels, escalators, stairways, elevators, entrances/exits, public transportation, one-way streets and streets with few possibilities to turn off or exit. In fact, anytime one is following an established road or trail, they are channelized and thus predictable and targetable.

Yet an especially important type of channelized terrain is referred to as a choke point. With respect to military strategy and planning, choke points are narrow places along an avenue of approach which an element must pass through to accomplish their objective. Because of such narrowness, choke points limit the amount of force that an element can bring to bear to the front of their formation. Hence, choke points act as a kind of equalizer between forces of different sizes, allowing smaller forces to defend against and even defeat a larger force.

Classic examples of such successful exploitation of choke points include the Battle of Thermopylae in 480 BC, wherein Leonidas I defended against the Persian Xerxes I’s invasion at the pass of Thermopylae, or the Battle of Agincourt in 1415 CE, when a smaller English force of largely archers were able to defeat a much larger French force of heavy cavalry mired in a muddy woodland pass.

For contemporary self-protection purposes, however, the term choke point could be used denote a channelized area along one’s route in which one must slow down or stop. Obvious examples include construction zones, traffic circles or places where one must turn against oncoming traffic, but any of the examples of channelized terrain described above could also be chokepoints.

Choke points should be identified in the planning process because they not only slow movement, but because they are also excellent ambush sites.

Static Positions and Avenues of Approach

Pertaining to static positions and avenues of approach, as a general rule of thumb for when practicing stealth, avoid taking up positions near natural lines of drift. This reduces the likelihood of an adversary stumbling upon one’s location by coincidence. Nevertheless, it is crucial to have preestablished avenues of egress from any static locations that one may occupy. It is also essential to have good observation of all potential enemy avenues of approach to one’s location.

Finally, if rescue is required at a given location, the case is the opposite from when avoiding enemy contact, since it is best to be located on or near major avenues of approach. One must consider whether potential avenues of approach for rescue personnel are feasible. If they are not, then relocation must be considered, but in light of the ability to do so, especially with regard to any injured personnel and the risk of further injury that might be caused by relocating.

K – Key Terrain: Key terrain is usually defined, in sources like FM 7-8 (Infantry Platoon and Squad) or the Ranger Handbook, as “locations or areas whose seizure, retention, or control gives a marked advantage to either combatant.” For our evasion-focused concerns, “seizure, retention, or control” shall be understood as simply occupying a particular location. The term “advantage” in this definition, however, would be largely determined by what it is one is intending to accomplish, like evasion/escape, pursuit/attack or rescue/evacuation. The respective advantages for such different objectives often relate directly to observation, CCC, obstacles and avenues of approach.

Thus, when evading/escaping or pursuing/attacking, the terrain occupied at any point in the endeavor should generally afford good CCC along with good observation, especially of avenues of approach. Moreover, one’s opponents’ movement should be restricted by obstacles while enjoying freedom of movement for oneself. For rescue/evacuation efforts, however, it is most advantageous for rescuers and those to be rescued to have clear observation of one another, as few obstacles between them as possible, and to be rapidly accessible to one another by high speed avenues of approach.

So in other words, for our purposes, key terrain is comprised of areas that are advantageous (whatever that may mean for one’s given objectives) in terms of all four of the other facets of OCOKA, namely, observation, CCC, obstacles and avenues of approach.

This composite concept is directly related to the planning process, as the location of key terrain will dictate one’s positions and selected routes, since one ought to occupy positions and use routes which meet these criteria.

Decisive Terrain

Yet there is also the issue of a specific type of key terrain known as “decisive terrain,” defined by FM 7-8 as “key terrain which seizure, retention, or control is necessary for mission accomplishment.” For us, if the objective is to reach sanctuary and acquire assistance at a safe place, like a shopping mall, hospital, public library or police station, then any such locations would not only be key terrain, but would also specifically count as decisive terrain. An identified and selected rescue site would also count as decisive terrain.

For hostile elements, decisive terrain might be surveillance locations and ambush sites. These provide them with good observation of their target, good CCC for themselves (including cover for action and status if physically visible), while also channelizing the target into the kill zone and keeping them there by way of obstacles as well as offering good avenues of ingress and egress for themselves before and after their objective is complete.

Bibliography

ArmyStudyGuide.com. “Identify Major / Minor Terrain Features.” https://www.armystudyguide.com/content/army_board_study_guide_topics/land_navigation_map_reading/identify-major-minor-terr.shtml (accessed August 31, 2021).

Itoh, Gingetsu. Gendaijin no Ninjutsu. Trans. Eric Shahan. Charleston, SC: CreateSpace, 2014.

Seiko, Fujita. Ninjutsu Kara Spy-sen E (The Secrets of Koga-ryu Ninjutsu). Trans.

Don Roley. Colorado Springs, Colorado: Freedom to Excel LLC, 2015.

Tanemura, Shoto. Ninpo Secrets: Philosophy, History and Techniques, 3^rd Ed. Matsubushi, Japan: Genbukan World Ninpo Bugei Federation, 2003.

U.S. Department of the Army. Soldier’s Manual of Common Tasks Warrior Skills Level 1. Washington, DC: Headquarters, Dept. of the Army, 2009.

U.S. Department of the Army. The Infantry Brigade. FM 7-30. Washington, DC: Headquarters, Dept. of the Army, 1995.

U.S. Department of the Army. Infantry Platoon and Squad. ATP 3-21.8. Washington, DC: Headquarters, Dept. of the Army, 2016. U.S. Department of the Army. Map Reading and Land Navigation. Field Manual 3-25.26. Washington, DC: Headquarters, Dept. of the Army, 2005.

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[1] Shoto Tanemura, Ninpo Secrets: Philosophy, History and Techniques, 3^rd Ed. (Matsubushi, Japan: Genbukan World Ninpo Bugei Federation, 2003), 228.

[2] Fujita Seiko, Ninjutsu Kara Spy-sen E (The Secrets of Koga-ryu Ninjutsu), Trans. Don Roley (Colorado Springs, Colorado: Freedom to Excel LLC, 2015), 36.

[3] Gingetsu Itoh, Gendaijin no Ninjutsu, trans. Eric Shahan (Charleston, SC: CreateSpace, 2014), 150-55.

[4] For descriptions of these features, see Chap. 10 of U.S. Department of the Army, Map Reading and Land Navigation, Field Manual 3-25.26 (Washington, DC: Headquarters, Dept. of the Army, 2005); as well as ArmyStudyGuide.com, “Identify Major / Minor Terrain Features,” https://www.armystudyguide.com/content/army_board_study_guide_topics/land_navigation_map_reading/identify-major-minor-terr.shtml (accessed August 31, 2021); and OEC G&V, “SMCT: Identify Terrain Features on a Military Map,” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YZJaV1MARhc (accessed August 22, 2021); and .

[5] More recently, the order of considerations has changed slightly to make the acronym OAKOC (Obstacles, Avenues of Approach, Key Terrain, Observation and Fields of Fire, Cover and Concealment)

[6] The image is taken from Chapter 5 of U.S. Department of the Army, The Infantry Brigade, FM 7-30 (Washington, DC: Headquarters, Dept. of the Army, 1995).

[7] This image is taken from U.S. Department of the Army, Soldier’s Manual of Common Tasks Warrior Skills Level 1 (Washington, DC: Headquarters, Dept. of the Army, 2009), Figure 071-326-0502-1. Individual Movement Route, 3-168.

In some evasion situations, such as while in a remote area, one may not be able to proceed immediately and directly to a safe place and may instead need to stop in one location for an extended period to rest, sleep, eat, plan, etc.

If carrying out such longer-range evasion, it is advisable to spend five to ten minutes of every hour resting rather than moving. It may even be necessary to remain in one place for several hours, even overnight. If actively evading pursuit, it is recommended to avoid spending any longer than 24 hours in one place and probably significantly less would be preferred, but never twice in the same location.

We will discuss further details on the actual process of establishing a “patrol base,” camp site or bivouac as well as natural shelter use/shelter construction in other articles. Here, however, we deal with how to choose the best location for establishing such a site, whether alone or in a group, along with some general points regarding one’s shelter. Major concerns addressed include stealth, safety, survival needs and comfort, not to mention environmental considerations for training exercises.

To begin with, as with planning any undertaking, a crucial part of the process is analyzing weather, terrain and human/animal considerations, thus pointing to the ten 天 (“heaven”), chi 地 (“earth”) and jin 人 (“human”) aspects of this website’s very title. Such analysis is dealt with in other articles, such as on the five militarily significant aspects of weather and the five considerations pertaining to terrain (OCOKA).

In addition to these fundamental considerations, most US SERE (Survival, Evasion, Resistance, Escape) manuals employ the acronym BLISS (Blend, Low Silhouette, Irregular Shape, Small, Secluded Location) to outline the main aspects to keep in mind when occupying or establishing a shelter/rest location while evading a hostile threat. Each element of OCOKA comes into play in the discussion of BLISS below, so there is overlap and interrelation in the content of both acronyms.

B – Blend: It is important to select a location where the terrain and vegetation already offer good camouflage and concealment, with possibilities for blending in or that provide a natural screen from observation.

Yet just as how one can temporarily use natural or artificial materials to further camouflage oneself along with one’s position and equipment, in conjunction with the environment and beyond what they may already inherently provide, such improvements can also be made for longer term static positions.

If one needs to establish a campsite during long-range evasion, time should be taken to select an appropriate site and apply additional camouflage to one’s shelter, whether a tent, poncho, tarp or other form of shelter.

When using natural material to facilitate blending as well as breaking up the outline of one’s shelter or other structures, be sure to use vegetation that matches the vegetation found at the site selected. Take this material from a wider area, so as not to create holes of missing foliage, and do not apply too much, since this will also draw attention. Only use enough material to mimic the environment. Similarly, if digging is required in preparing a position, any unearthed soil should be discretely relocated and camouflaged or concealed.

When finished setting up and camouflaging a position, move away from the site and assess from different likely angles of observation how well it is concealed and/or blends into the environment.

Of further note, make use of shade to facilitate the blending of one’s position into the environment, but be certain to factor in how shadows will change and move as the sun or moon cross the sky.

L – Low silhouette: In addition to of course avoiding silhouetting one’s own body, structures like shelters should offer as low of a profile as possible, ideally no higher than the surrounding vegetation and concealing terrain features. Although primarily dependent upon the terrain and vegetation, a good rule of thumb is to keep shelters and other structures no higher than hip-height.

Locations along the military crest are ideal, since they prevent silhouetting oneself while maximizing observation. The reverse military crest, while less effective for observing the enemy, is a safer option in terms of avoiding detection, since the terrain conceals oneself rather than having to rely on camouflage.

I – Irregular shape: In addition to concealing or disguising one’s own outline, the shape of shelters or other structures should also be irregular, rather than a distinctive geometric shape that could stand out in a natural setting or one that clearly reveals what they are.

S – Small: Individual shelters or other structures should be as small as possible to reduce the likelihood of detection. When in a group, the requirement for dispersal (discussed in the article on target indicators) also applies to setting up positions in relation to one another, as these should not be so close together as to present an easily detected mass, nor too far apart as to hinder internal communication, integrity and control within the group.

S – Secluded location: The site selected should be away from natural lines of drift, but avoid isolated structures or vegetation, such as an abandoned building or a patch of bushes in an open field, since these are more likely to be searched.

Selecting an area in rough or difficult to access terrain with obstacles that hinder or delay approach is also advisable since these are less likely to be searched, take longer to negotiate and may provide some advance warning of enemy approach.

That said, however, always have two or more concealed escape routes so as not to trap oneself and to be able to escape undetected. It is also advisable to be able to observe likely avenues of approach to your position.

The location should be easy to find, in case one or an element of the group has to leave and return, such as to collect food and water or conduct reconnaissance. Yet avoid choosing a location next to a prominent terrain feature like a hilltop, radio tower, etc., that might attract the enemy’s attention, such as for orienting themselves, and thus also potentially bring scrutiny to your position. The location should not be next to anything else that could be of interest to the enemy or that they would have reason to go to, such as where they were last known to have parked their vehicle.

But beyond the acronym BLISS, there are also other important site selection criteria, such as related to safety, survivability and comfort, not to mention environmental responsibility during training exercises.[1] These include:

Safety: Ensure that the site is located in a safe place. Thus, for instance, avoid camping among poisonous plants, under dead trees where branches may fall, in areas that could be flooded quickly or on hilltops and by lone trees where lightning is more likely to strike.

Water: Having a campsite that is close to a source of water is desirable because water is essential for hydration, cooking and hygiene. That said, water taken from lakes, streams or rivers must be purified before drinking. Yet being too close to a source of water should be avoided, since the enemy might look there knowing that you need water or go there for water themselves. Moreover, the sound of running water can mask the sounds of an approaching pursuer, and is thus detrimental to maintaining good security.

Natural Shelter: The site selected should provide shade from direct sunlight as well as protection from wind and rain. Being on a hilltop exposes one to inclement weather, while low areas tend to have more moisture and insects like mosquitos. Being in between, however, such as the military crest, offers more protection from the elements as well as dryer terrain, which brings us to the next point.

Drainage: Gently sloping terrain allows for good drainage to prevent having to camp amongst muddy puddles and standing pools of water. Scattering pine needles or leaves can also help to reduce how muddy a campsite becomes.

Environmental Considerations: During training exercises or camping trips, in order to reduce the environmental impact of one’s activities, it is preferred to use established sites that are already dedicated to this purpose.

The same is true for campfires, as it is always preferable to use existing fire pits so as not to create new marks on the land. While fires should be avoided and only used as an absolute last resort in an evasion scenario, if camping fires are permitted at your location during a training excursion, these can make the experience more fun and comfortable. In such a situation, choosing an area with dead and/or fallen branches and trees nearby ensures an easy source of firewood with minimal environmental impact.

Whether in training, camping for fun or real-world evasion, always strive to practice good litter discipline and leave no trace when departing from a campsite. This includes natural materials used to create a shelter or for other purposes. Scatter these over a wider area to return the setting to being as close to its natural state as possible. A pile of branches will also alert pursuers to the fact that you were there. Site sanitization is of course not only good environmental stewardship, but it is also good stealth practice.

Before leaving the site, be certain to know your current location (which you should have already known from deciding to camp there), identify your next destination and have primary and alternative concealed routes planned for getting there.

Bibliography

Birkby, Robert C. The Boy Scout Handbook, 10^th Ed. Irving, TX: Boy Scouts of America, 1990.

Ranger Training Brigade, United States Army Infantry Center. Ranger Handbook. SH 21-76. Alexandria, VA: Byrrd Enterprises, 2000.

U.S. Department of the Army. Survival. Field Manual 21-76. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Army, 1992.

U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff. Survival, Evasion, and Recovery: Multiservice Procedures for Survival, Evasion, and Recovery. Washington, DC: U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, 2010.

U.S. Marine Corps. Introduction to Evasion and Resistance to Capture. MCI 0327. Washington, DC: Marine Barracks, 2008.

White, Terry. The SAS Fighting Techniques Handbook. Guilford, CT: The Lyons Press, 2001.

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[1] The main, though not the only, source for the following paragraphs is The Boy Scout Handbook, 10^th Ed.

When planning for any kind of undertaking outdoors, but especially for escape and evasion, it is essential to consider how weather, terrain and human factors will impact oneself, the members of one’s group, equipment used and the ability to accomplish the intended objective. In the case of avoiding potentially hostile encounters, it is also important to take into account the effects that weather, terrain and human considerations will have on any pursuers or adversaries.

With other more poetic words, we could describe this as figuring out how to harmonize and fit in with what has been called the law of heaven, the scheme of totality or simply the way the universe is and how it operates.

To this end, the present article deals with the analysis of weather and its effects, while terrain and human considerations are addressed in other articles. This is not a survival guide for all types of weather conditions, but merely an attempt to outline the main basic points to be taken into account.

Tenton Jūppō (天遁十法, “Ten Heaven Methods of Escaping/Disappearing”)

Such a three-fold set of considerations as described above is reflected in the thirty ongyōjutsu (隠形術, “hidden forms methods”) attributed to the Japanese ninja, namely, the tenchijin santon no hō (天地人三遁の法, “heaven, earth, man-three methods of escaping”). Divided into three sets of ten, respectively associated with heaven, earth and man, the first set is known as tenton juppō (“ten heaven methods of escaping/disappearing”). It includes nitton (日遁, “sun escape”), getton (月遁, “moon escape”), seiton (星遁, “stars escape”), unton (雲遁, “clouds escape”), muton (霧遁, “fog escape”), raiton (雷遁, “thunder escape”), denton (電遁, “lightning escape”), fūton (風遁, “wind escape”), uton (雨遁, “rain escape”) and setton (雪遁, “snow escape”).[1]

The Five Military Aspects of Weather

Modern militaries also regard weather factors as a crucial fundamental consideration, such as in terms of the five militarily significant aspects of weather: visibility, wind, precipitation, clouds and temperature/humidity. These five aspects guide the remainder of the discussion in this article.  

Overall, the impact of weather on oneself is generally more immediate than its impact on one’s equipment and supplies. Differences between individuals, such as resulting from physical fitness level, can make one person more or less able to adapt to certain weather conditions. Whatever the case, extreme temperatures are the most consequential weather factor in terms of direct impact on human beings. This factor is discussed last. It is also important to note that these five aspects interact with one another and different conditions can have similar effects. For instance, various inclement weather conditions, such as pertaining to visibility, precipitation, winds, lightning and temperature can inhibit search and rescue aircraft. Moreover, the different aspects of weather also interact with characteristics of the terrain. For example, the interaction of topography and air flow can lead to potentially compromising scents travelling great distances or settling in low-lying areas

Visibility:

Visibility factors in solar and lunar light data; namely the times for BMNT, sunrise, sunset, EENT, moonrise and moonset, along with the moon’s percentage of illumination. Moreover, positioning of the sun in relation to oneself as well as pursuers or potential adversaries is also important, with it being far better to have the sun in the opponent’s eyes and to one’s own back.

But it is also crucial to consider the presence or absence of any obscuring factors like fog, smog, smoke and dust, as well as various forms of precipitation, like rain, snow, sleet and hail, not to mention their relation to the next consideration of wind.

Whatever the weather situation, it is important to consider its impact on the enemy’s ability to see oneself, as well as vice versa, along with how one may capitalize on this situation to accomplish one’s objective.

Wind:

In conventional military terms, being upwind in relation to one’s enemy is generally more advantageous because of better visibility for oneself and worse visibility for the enemy. This relates to how the wind itself, along with any dust, sand, precipitation, etc., is blowing into the enemy’s eyes when they are oriented to observe one’s position.

Yet pertaining to stealth for the purposes of escape and evasion, since the objective is not “to close with and destroy the enemy,” this advantage of having the wind in the opponent’s eyes mostly applies to the initial escape or to escaping from any subsequent unavoidable close encounters.

Ideally, once contact has been broken, one uses the available terrain, vegetation and manmade structures for concealment and camouflage. This allows for a more subtle use of wind direction, namely, pertaining to audial and olfactory target indicators. Both sound and scent can be carried further distances by wind. Thus, after contact has been broken, while relying on effective camouflage and concealment to avoid visual detection during evasion, one remains upwind of hostile observers to prevent any sounds or scents that one may produce from being carried by wind to the enemy.

So the lesson here is: When initially escaping, run into the wind if possible, but while evading, remain upwind of the area you have assessed the enemy is likely to be.

Another important factor regarding wind and stealth is that the sound produced by wind can mask one’s own movements, but it can also mask the movements of one’s adversaries.

Wind direction is something that can change quickly and it must thus be continuously monitored. It can be determined by wetting one’s finger and noting which side is coolest, tossing vegetation up in the air and observing how it falls or, in stronger winds, observing the direction in which grass, bushes or tree branches are being blown.

Yet beyond avoiding detection, wind also has an important effect to consider on the body’s thermoregulation: Wind can cause greater heat loss from exposed skin, thus making the air feel colder but also reducing one’s body temperature. This is known as wind chill. In cold or even moderate weather environments, such heat loss can be dangerous, possibly leading to hypothermia and/or frostbite.

Lastly, it should also be noted that strong winds make negotiating steep terrain or climbing particularly hazardous. This is not to mention the risk of falling trees or branches along with the possibility of wind damaging signal towers and thus affecting communications.

Precipitation:

Key facets to consider with regard to precipitation are its type, amount and duration, along with its effects on visibility, thermoregulation, equipment (including especially communications) and trafficability.

Large amounts of precipitation and/or precipitation blown in the direction of the observer reduce visibility.

Pertaining to thermoregulation, being wet promotes heat loss, which can be detrimental in even moderate conditions. Thus, it is imperative to remain dry. But there are also other preventative medicine reasons for remaining dry, such as avoiding “trench foot.”

Measures must also be taken to ensure that personal equipment and supplies are kept dry. A wet paper map, for instance, can quickly become unusable. Precipitation can also adversely affect the operation of communications equipment, for example, degraded GPS or mobile phone reception.[2]

Soil trafficability (in vehicles or on foot) can be adversely affected by precipitation, such as by making terrain muddy, snow-covered or slippery, especially when combined with freezing temperatures. Precipitation can also make tracks left behind more noticeable, or conversely, it can facilitate silent movement by moistening dry vegetation. Like wind, the sound of falling precipitation itself can also mask movement.

Cloud Cover:

Cloud cover can prevent one from being able to see the sun, moon and stars, thus inhibiting one’s ability to carry out celestial navigation.

Pertaining to visibility, a cloudy sky makes for a darker night in rural settings, since it prevents moonlight from illuminating the environment, while in urban settings the opposite is true and cloudy nights are brighter, since they reflect and even amplify city lights.[3]

Additionally, like precipitation, clouds too can adversely affect GPS signal and mobile phone reception. Lastly, the risk of lightning strikes associated with storm clouds is a serious safety concern.[4]

Yet it is not only the presence of clouds that must be considered, but also the lack thereof. The absence of cloud cover of course facilitates celestial navigation.

Moreover, direct sunlight unimpeded by such cloud cover has a number of effects, both positive and negative. It can contribute to sustaining sunburn as well as hot weather injuries.

More positively, the direct sunlight allowed by a lack of clouds also facilitates the use of mirrors or other reflective surfaces for signaling or eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, etc. for fire-starting.

Pertaining to stealth, direct sunlight creates greater contrast, making darker shadows to hide in. As mentioned above, having the sun shining in the observer’s eyes also facilitates stealth.

Temperature/Humidity:

Extreme temperatures, whether high or low, are the single most important factors to consider in terms on their effect on human beings.

Low temperature effects on humans

Low temperatures come with the risk of cold weather injuries like frostbite, hypothermia, chilblain and trench foot. A helpful acronym outlining key preventative medicine points for operating in low temperatures is COLD:

-Keep clothing Clean,

–Observe each other for signs of cold weather injuries, or avoid Overheating (because of too much clothing, especially when exerting oneself)

-Wear Loose layers of clothing, and

-Stay Dry

Because of physical exertion in heavy clothing along with the typically dry air, cold temperatures can increase the need for water consumption. Yet the availability of water is limited in subzero temperatures (Celsius) due to freezing.

High temperature effects on humans

As mentioned above, the temperature combined with wind speed determine the wind chill, which can increase the risk of cold weather injuries. Similarly, high temperatures, especially in conjunction with high humidity, increase the risk of hot weather injuries like heat exhaustion and heat stroke.

It is crucial to ensure sufficient water consumption in warm weather conditions. Electrolytes, particularly sodium, should also be replenished to replace those lost through sweating.

Likewise, it is necessary to pace oneself and incorporate rest periods while carrying out any tasks requiring physical exertion.

Extreme temperature effects on equipment

Vehicles and other equipment are more prone to overheating in hot weather conditions, while in extreme cold, they may also fail to work properly. The latter case is especially true of battery-operated equipment, since batteries produce less electrical current in the cold.

Regarding freezing temperatures, depending on the terrain, trafficability in vehicles or on foot can be helped, by making muddy ground harder, or hindered, by creating slick frozen surfaces.

Stealth, temperature and humidity

Pertaining to how temperature and humidity affect stealth and the perceptibility of audial recognition factors, cooler temperatures are more conducive to the propagation of sound, while warmer temperatures are less so. Similarly, lower humidity is more conducive to sound propagation, while higher humidity is less so. Thus, it is easier to hear or be heard in cold and/or dry conditions, while it is harder to hear or be heard in hot and/or humid conditions.

The perceptibility of olfactory recognition factors is also affected by temperature and humidity. Warmer temperatures are conducive to smell while coolers temperatures have the opposite effect. Likewise, higher humidity is more conducive to smell than lower humidity.

Bibliography

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “Lightning Safety Tips.” CDC.gov. https://www.cdc.gov/disasters/lightning/safetytips.html (accessed 17 July 2021).

Itoh, Gingetsu. Gendaijin no Ninjutsu. Trans. Eric Shahan. Charleston: CreateSpace, 2014.

Itoh, Gingetsu. Ninjutsu no Gokui. Trans. Eric Shahan. Charleston: CreateSpace, 2014.

Public Library of Science. “Clouds Amplify Ecological Light Pollution.” ScienceDaily, www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/03/110302171312.htm (accessed July 17, 2021).

Siler, Wes. “How Weather Affects Your Cell Signal: Using a Phone Outdoors? This is What You Need to Know to Stay in Touch.” OutsideOnline. https://www.outsideonline.com/outdoor-gear/tools/how-weather-affects-your-phones-signal/ (accessed July 17, 2021).

Tanemura, Shoto. Ninpo Secrets: Philosophy, History and Techniques, 3^rd Ed. Matsubushi, Japan: Genbukan World Ninpo Bugei Federation, 2003.

U.S. Department of the Army. Battlefield Weather Effects. Field Manual 31-81-1. Washington, DC: Headquarters, Dept. of the Army, 1992.

U.S. Department of the Army. Infantry Platoon and Squad. ATP 3-21.8. Washington, DC: Headquarters, Dept. of the Army, 2016.

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[1] See, for example, Shoto Tanemura, Ninpo Secrets: Philosophy, History and Techniques, 3^rd Ed. (Matsubushi, Japan: Genbukan World Ninpo Bugei Federation, 2003); Gingetsu Itoh, Gendaijin no Ninjutsu, Trans. Eric Shahan (Charleston: CreateSpace, 2014) ; Itoh, Gingetsu, Ninjutsu no Gokui, Trans. Eric Shahan (Charleston: CreateSpace, 2014).

[2] Wes Siler, “How Weather Affects Your Cell Signal: Using a Phone Outdoors? This is What You Need to Know to Stay in Touch,” OutsideOnline, https://www.outsideonline.com/outdoor-gear/tools/how-weather-affects-your-phones-signal/ (accessed July 17, 2021).

[3] Public Library of Science, “Clouds Amplify Ecological Light Pollution,” ScienceDaily, www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/03/110302171312.htm (accessed July 17, 2021).

[4] For lightning safety tips, both indoors and outdoors, see: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Lightning Safety Tips,” CDC.gov, https://www.cdc.gov/disasters/lightning/safetytips.html (accessed 17 July 2021).

Having already addressed in the preceding two articles three basic approaches to hiding along with target indictors to be eliminated or mitigated, we now look to some practical ways to develop one’s competency in stealth. But before delving into various games and exercises that one can engage in to develop one’s stealth skills, it is crucial to address the issue of safety. Here are some major considerations:

–First-aid kits should always be on-hand and the nearest medical facility for emergency treatment, along with the means to get there, should be identified ahead of time. There should also always be someone present who is trained and competent in administering basic first-aid care. Also, make sure that the contents of the first-aid kit have been inspected for completeness and serviceability as well as that any expired items have been replaced before beginning the exercise.

-When conducting activities outside of the “classroom,” it is advisable, especially for exercises in low-light conditions, to reconnoiter the training area ahead of time to identify any potentially harmful environmental factors, like barbed wire, broken glass and sudden depressions, cliffs or steep terrain, etc.

– Likewise, when engaged in any of the activities below that are conducted outside of the “classroom,” protective eyewear is highly recommended, especially at night. The current author can personally attest to the pain involved in waiting, first for a taxi and then in an emergency room, after having gotten a thorn in his eye during a night stealth training exercise without the appropriate protective eyewear or a proper evacuation plan. Please learn from this and wear eye protection along with having a medical evacuation plan, and don’t forget the first aid kit.

With such recommended safety precautions noted, we now proceed to the actual exercises themselves, which deal primarily with developing one’s ability to avoid visual and audial detection. As already alluded to, some are of a more “classroom” nature, but the more hands-on exercises should be practiced in varied settings; such as urban and rural, day and night; which is basically what the first exercise we present consists of.

Practice stealth and stealth movement techniques in different conditions and places, especially those you frequent often. Periodically think about how the clothing you happen to be wearing could facilitate blending in to your environment at a given place as well as what in the environment could allow you to do the same or provide opportunities for camouflage and concealment, especially shadows and dead space, as well as for deception. Understand the noises made when moving through different areas and across varied surfaces, as well as opening and closing different doors in one’s house. Know which floors and steps creak and where, but also how to move around these by stepping on areas less likely to creak or that make less noise. Also note what sounds in your environment, such as traffic patterns, could be used to mask the sounds of your own movements.

Fashion Magazine: In order to enhance one’s ability to quickly assess how whatever clothing one may be wearing could facilitate stealth, one approach is to look through a fashion magazine and assess how different models and the outfits they are wearing could help or hinder stealth in different settings, including urban as well as various types of rural settings. One might ask oneself, with regard to a given model and outfit placed in a particular environmental setting: What aspects could facilitate blending? What aspects must be subdued or concealed? What is particularly compromising about these? Color? Contrast? Texture? Shine? How could these indicators be subdued or concealed? Does their clothing and footwear allow for silent, free and rapid movement or encumber it?

Landscape Image: Likewise, one could look at images of landscapes and identify good opportunities for camouflage and concealment, for static locations as well as for while moving from point A to point B. One might also combine this exercise with the previous one by pairing a fashion magazine image with a landscape image and assess how the model in their given attire might avoid detection in a certain environment.

Stealth Map Recon: Plan a route or select a bivouac site on a map based on the degree of camouflage and concealment that it is expected to offer according to the information that the map provides. If possible, then go out onto the terrain itself to confirm or deny. This exercises one’s ability to asses the degree of camouflage and concealment that an area is expected to afford on the basis of a map reconnaissance.

Stealth Hike (Observational): Go on a hike and observe one’s surroundings while assessing the terrain, identifying opportunities for camouflage and concealment as well as the lack thereof. One could plan a hypothetical route from one location to another while designating where the observer is positioned and pointing out how it would be possible to use available camouflage and concealment to reach the destination.

Stealth Hike (Practical – Version 1): Go on a hike and, on the command of an appointed group member, periodically disperse into hiding positions. The command to do so might be a hand-and-arm signal, insect mimicry or a voice command, but once it is given, each member of the group, other than the one who gave the command, darts into the nearest positions of concealment, taking a maximum of 3-5 seconds to do so, and then freezes. The leader or senior group member who gave the command then inspects the hiding positions of the various other group members, noting particularly effective uses of camouflage and concealment or the lack thereof. After instructing those group members whose hiding positions offer the best teaching points (whether positive or negative) to remain still and in place, she/he then calls out to the remaining members of the group to observe and take note of any teaching points.

Stealth Hike (Practical – Version 2): While the first version of the practical stealth hike tests the patrol members, rather than the leader, and allows them to practice their ability to quickly find and make use of available camouflage and concealment, the second version tests the designated patrol leader’s skills in planning, map reconnaissance and leading a patrol. She/he is given a starting point and an ending point and must plan how to move between the two while avoiding detection. Such can be accomplished by, for instance, using a ridgeline as a handrail and concealing oneself on the reverse slope, the opposite side from where the observer is thought to be. One could also make use of the presence of significant vegetation to conceal their group’s movement. After planning such a movement, the patrol leader then actually leads their patrol in carrying out this plan.

Hide-and-Seek: With a minimum of two players, though preferably more, this classic children’s game is the most timeless as well as one of the most effective means of training in stealth. One person is designated as “it” while the other participants run into positions of camouflage and concealment. The person designated as “it” counts to a certain number, such as ten, and then declares something to the effect of, “Ready or not, here I come!” With two players, if she/he is able to find and tag the other participant, she/he then becomes “it,” restarting the entire process. Alternatively, with multiple players, the game may continue until “it” has located all participants, in which case, the last one to be found will become it.

This game can be made more complex by establishing a “base.” When the person designated as “it” leaves the “base,” if the other participants can reach the “base,” they are considered safe and cannot be tagged. In this case, the first person to be tagged becomes “it.” If all participants reach the base before being found by “it,” then the game is restarted with the same person playing the role of “it.”

Fox Hunt: This exercise combines elevated stress with a profound testing of one’s ability to hide. A selected individual is given a ten-, twenty-, or thirty-second head start, depending on terrain and weather conditions, to conceal him/herself, after which, the remaining members of the group begin their pursuit to locate him/her. If after one full minute, the fox remains undetected, they have won that particular round.

Capture the Flag: Divide a group of participants, ideally at least six people, into two teams, each team having its own territory, within which is a flag that they aim to defend, preventing the enemy from finding, acquiring and returning back to their own territory with it. At the same time, they are also trying to locate and capture the other team’s flag and bring it back to their own territory. Team members protecting their own flag are on defense, while those going into the other team’s territory to capture their flag are on offense. These roles can be changed at any time. Whichever team captures the opposing team’s flag and returns to their own territory with it wins the game. The flags must be placed at eye level and must be visible from at least one angle from a distance of 18 meters (60 feet) or more. Defense players can capture offense members of the opposing team that have infiltrated their territory by tagging them, after which they are placed in a designated “jail,” which should be out of sight of the flag so as not to reveal its location. For jailed players to be freed, offense players from their own team must find the jail and then bring their teammates back across the border into their own territory before they can return to play.

Stalking Animals: Wildlife can be the best and most challenging training partners for developing your stealth abilities. Cognizance of remaining downwind from your quarry (whatever it is that you are tracking) is substantially more important than when avoiding detection by humans.

Waiting in Place: Whether observing humans or wildlife, one of the best ways to do so is by allowing them to come to you. Thus, whether day or night, choose a hiding position near a human or animal trail, a source of water, open meadow or anywhere that is observable and is likely to be traversed by humans or wildlife and then wait. This is an excellent exercise in patience.

Wary Wolf: This game, especially intended for children, trains the ability to quickly freeze in place in response to a stimulus, a necessary skill to have for avoiding detection due to movement. One participant is appointed as the “wary wolf” and stands facing away from the other participants, who are all positioned in a line 200 meters away and stalk towards her/him until she/he turns around to face them, upon which they must all freeze. Anyone still moving after the wolf has turned around is “out” and must return to the start line and begin again from there. The first one to reach the wolf wins and becomes the next wolf.

Sleeping Pirate: An individual designated as the “sleeping pirate” remains blindfolded sitting somewhere, such as on a log, with a “treasure” (some object like a bandana) sitting at her/his feet while waiting and listening. As soon as she/he hears someone approaching, they clap their hands and point to the location of the sound. That person is then “out” and must remain in place until the end of the game. The one who reaches closest wins and then becomes the next pirate.

“Deer” Stalking: In contrast to the audial character of the “sleeping pirate” game, this game is oriented more toward visual stealth. It also resembles the kinds of tests that military snipers must go through in order to be certified. An individual designated as the “deer” stands in a field or forest observing for anyone approaching her/his position. When they see someone approaching, they point to/call out to them and that individual stands and waits in place until the end of the game. When all individuals have been detected and told to stand, the one who has gotten the closest to the “Deer” wins and becomes the next “Deer.”[1]

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[1] The last several exercises and games are drawn from Robert C. Birkby, The Boy Scout Handbook, 10^th Ed. (Irving, TX: Boy Scouts of America, 1990), 288-90.

Whether by camouflage, concealment, deception or some combination thereof, the goal when practicing stealth is to prevent an observer from perceiving what we are calling “recognition factors” or “target indicators” of oneself, one’s equipment or one’s position, whether those indicators are direct or indirect. In his 1937 work Gendaijin no Ninjutsu (“Ninjutsu for the Modern Person,” transl. Eric Shahan), Itoh Gingetsu presents stealth, which he sees as the definitive aspect of ninjutsu, as a practical means of self-protection in the modern era. The present article agrees with him on the point that stealth can indeed serve as a viable means of self-protection, but it also echoes much of the same approach.  Itoh describes a progression of “six non-existences” (roku mu) to be aspired towards, which he describes in detail under the headings of mu shoku (“colorless”), mu kei (“shapeless”), mu seki (“trackless”), mu sei (“voiceless”), mu soku (“breathless”) and mu shu (“odorless”). In this listing, one can discern both direct and indirect target indicators as well as the categories of visual, audial and olfactory, and as with Itoh, our aim is to disguise, eliminate or draw attention away from such recognition factors.

Because of our focus on practical evasion for civilians for self-protection rather than, for instance, conducting military operations, we are not concerned with aerial observation or with recognition factors that apply to more sophisticated threats, such as thermal or radar signature, etc., but instead with those factors that are detectable by the natural unaided senses. Out of the five senses, those we are most concerned about with regard to stealth, in order of precedence, include: sight, hearing and smell. Therefore, the target indicator categories discussed below are divided into three types of direct target indicators (visual, audial, olfactory) along with indirect target indicators. We now begin with direct visual target indicators.

Visual Target Indicators:

Vision is the most dominant of the human senses and the speed of light is substantially faster than the speed of sound. For some idea of how great that difference is, “light travels 186 thousand miles in 1 second, while sound takes almost 5 seconds to travel 1 mile.”[1] Yet it is not so much the speeds of light and sound that matter to us, since the time difference is basically negligible for our purposes, but rather the distance that they can travel. But this varies and relies greatly on the source of such light or sound along with environmental factors, though we offer some examples. Hopefully these will provide some perspective as to why we pay so much attention to visual target indicators, which we discuss below under the categories of color, contrast, texture, shine, light, shape/silhouetting, shadow, dispersal/spacing and movement. To our benefit, however, low light conditions as well as precipitation, fog, dust clouds or other weather factors can severely reduce visibility, thus helping us to successfully avoid being detected. Conversely, daylight and clear weather make stealth more difficult to achieve. Furthermore, the concealment provided by terrain, vegetation and man-made features are also considerable assets. Flat terrain with little or no vegetation or buildings offers fewer opportunities, but topographically varied terrain and areas with substantial vegetation and/or man-made structures provide a plethora of possibilities for stealth. But now, we delve into the various visual recognition factors individually, beginning first with color.

                –Color: Utility workers may wear bright colors like neon orange to attract attention and avoid visually blending into their environment so as to remain safe by alerting passing motorists to their presence. Likewise, signal panels may also be brightly colored to attract attention from search teams and rescue aircraft. When eluding an assailant, however, it is desirable to do the opposite, wearing colors that blend well into one’s environment, such as subdued drab greens and browns when in a forest, tans in the desert or white in snow. But what if one is not already wearing the perfect color to fade into their background? The situation is not as bleak as it may seem.

There is always the option of relying on concealment more than camouflage, but beyond that, differences in color are only most important in daylight, at closer distances and in environments dominated by a single color, such as in the case of snow and deserts. Conversely, color is less important of a factor in low light conditions and at greater distances. From a long range, colors tend to blend together for the observer into a single tone. Since in darkness, the human eye relies on rods, which do not perceive color (instead of cones which do), this becomes less important. In the image below, a neon orange safety vest has been placed only a single layer of foliage deep within a bush.

This color photo was taken in daylight, but when the same photo is converted to black and white, the bright orange vest blends with and becomes almost indiscernible from its environment. This illustrates how darkness and the accompanying lack of color vision makes color a much less significant concern. Nevertheless, the next recognition factor of contrast does retain some importance in low light conditions.

                –Contrast:  Although our vision in darkness does not perceive different colors, it can detect variations in shade, which we are referring to here as contrast. For instance, even at night, contrary to common depictions in popular fiction, black is rarely if ever a color that blends well with any environment. It instead usually stands out as anomalous, being too dark in shade to match its surroundings. Hence, black or white and other very dark or very light shades of color tend to stand out. This risk, as well as the risk of exposure associated with any non-matching colors in general, can be 1.) eliminated by completely concealing such colors, 2.) reduced by changing the color itself to more closely match the environment, such as with paint or dye (though this can be time-consuming and impractical for short range self-protective evasion), or 3.) mitigated by partial concealment and camouflage. By way of illustrating the third option, the figure below features two balled-up pieces of fabric, one white and the other black. In three successive images, they are placed first superficially on the outside of a bush, then within the bush just behind the outer wall of foliage and finally deeper inside the bush.

Note how being placed behind a layer of foliage partially conceals the black and white pieces of cloth, but it also alters their texture and shape (two further recognition factors discussed below). Moreover, placing the pieces of cloth deeper within the shadows of the bush also makes the contrast less of an issue. By doing this, the shadows make the lighter color (white) appear darker, making it more closely match its environment for the observer, while the surroundings of the darker color (black) also appear darker, thus also reducing the concern about contrast from being too dark.

                –Texture: Despite comparable colors or shades, surface textures may also vary, such as being smooth, rough, leafy, grassy, etc. For example, the below image features foliage with two only slightly different shades of green, but with quite different textures, one leafy and the other grassy.

A tiger’s stripes, for instance, help it to remain undetected from its prey while it stalks through tall grass or jungle foliage by mimicking the texture of the surrounding vegetation while also disrupting the tiger’s overall shape (shape being another indicator discussed below). When employing stealth as a self-protection measure, however, it is unlikely (though certainly not impossible, such as if engaging in outdoor sports that also involve stealth) that the clothing one happens to have on when needing to vanish from observation will blend perfectly in terms of texture. Yet given that this recognition factor is only noticeable at quite close ranges, it may be less of a concern once substantial distance from the enemy has been achieved and is not expected to be lost. Thus, one might choose to accept risk over spending a longer amount of time on improving the texture of one’s camouflage. As seen in the above images with the neon orange vest or pieces of white and black cloth in a bush, being behind just a single layer of foliage can substantially alter texture (as well as shape).

If a closer encounter and scrutiny are a concern, however, one may attempt to mimic the texture of their surroundings by adding natural or artificial material, like branches with leaves, grasses or strips of burlap cloth. Likewise, camouflage paint can, alongside blending by altering color and shape and reducing shine, also mimic the texture of the environment. A blotch pattern could be used in a deciduous forest and a broad slash pattern could be used for coniferous or jungle settings or a thin slash pattern for blending into tall grass.

                –Shine: This refers to the reflection of light off of exposed skin (regardless of how dark one’s skin tone, since all skin secretes oil) or reflective surfaces one may be carrying, such as glasses, watches, jewelry, signal mirrors, etc. To understand the significant risk of discovery posed by shine (but also the significant hope of rescue if using shine as a means to signal for aid), a 3×5-inch signal mirror has a surface-to-surface range of ca. 10 to 16 km (6 to 10 miles). This range is actually only limited by the curvature of the earth and surface-to-air signaling with such a small mirror can go up to 32 kilometers (20 miles).[2]

For stealth purposes, sources of shine can be covered, removed or subdued. Exposed skin can be covered with clothing or painted. Another approach to camouflage face paint which is specifically focused on eliminating sources of shine and is also used when one has only a single dark shade of paint (such as when using charcoal or burnt cork as improvised face paint) involves applying such paint to protruding areas like the brow ridge, nose, cheekbones and chin. Watches and jewelry can likewise be covered or can be removed altogether. If one must wear glasses, it is possible to lightly coat them with dust to reduce shine. If carrying a signal mirror, when not in use, have the reflective side facing the body inside one’s pocket.

                –Light: Artificial sources of light; like flashlights, headlamps, cell phone displays and cigarettes; can be used carelessly and haphazardly and may be seen from substantial distances. The judicious and cautious use of such sources of light is referred to as “light discipline.” This is quite significant when considering the potential risk of exposure entailed in their use since, for example, with no obstructions from terrain and vegetation, a lit cigarette can be seen from as far as 5 kilometers (ca. 3 miles) away. To help limit the use of a flashlight for map checks, be familiar with your area of operation and the selected route to your destination. When performing map checks with a flashlight, it is advisable to do so under a thick covering like a blanket to reduce the amount of light that escapes. On a further note, while using a red lens with a flashlight preserves night vision, a blue-green lens is more difficult for observers to detect. Most cell phones can also be switched to a darkness mode, which helps to reduce the amount and intensity of light produced.

                –Shape/Silhouetting: The shape, outline or silhouette of one’s body or parts thereof, especially the head and shoulders, as well as equipment can present a unique signature that may reveal one’s presence and should thus be disguised or concealed. It is of course possible to use camouflage material like branches and grass attached to one’s clothing and headgear to break up one’s shape. Moreover, as described above when discussing texture, disruptive camouflage, like blotch versus slash patterns or the striped pattern of a tiger, also distort or break up shape. Yet as already noted, these take time, effort and attention to apply and maintain, thus it may be preferable to simply be cognizant of how one’s shape/silhouette interacts with (is concealed or highlighted by) one’s environment and to take some basic precautionary measures.

It is important to be aware of one’s background from the perspective of an observer. Situations where one’s outline contrasts dramatically with their background, such as being silhouetted against the sky or backlit while looking out of a window, should be especially avoided.

Crouching, squatting, kneeling or laying prone while static or moving reduce and alter or completely conceal one’s silhouette, as contrasted with standing upright without appropriate concealment, which is much easier to see and recognize.

Making use of the “military crest” of hills not only helps to prevent silhouetting, but it can also facilitate your own ability to observe. Being on the reverse slope of a hill (the side away from where any adversaries are believed to be) offers concealment by way of the terrain itself, whereas when on the forward slope (the side facing where the enemy is thought to be), one must rely on camouflage or use vegetation, rocks or manmade structures for concealment.

When observing from behind concealment, it is always desirable to avoid silhouetting oneself by looking through, under or around (and low to the ground), as opposed to looking over. Yet wherever one observes from, it is always preferable to do so with a suitable background and from behind additional concealment such as foliage.

The same principle just discussed regarding observing from behind concealment (through, under or around [and low to the ground] as being preferred to looking over) applies to negotiating obstacles. When passing obstacles, going through, under or around (and low to the ground) is preferred as it is less likely to expose and highlight one’s silhouette than moving over top of them. When it is necessary to go over, such as crossing over a wall, fence or a hilltop or ridgeline, it is best to remain as low and flatly pressed to the obstacle as possible to reduce silhouetting. It is also best to do so at a place that offers camouflage and concealment, such as provided by foliage and shadows.

One pre-emptive deception measure for crossing over obstacles like hills, where one’s silhouette may have been exposed, is to change the direction of one’s movement after crossing. Any observer losing sight of oneself after crossing the obstacle will be led to believe that one has continued in the previously established direction of movement. Additionally, if at any point one drops to a crouched, prone or kneeling position to avoid enemy observation or fire, it may be advisable to move; such as by rolling, crawling or using squatting movement; before raising one’s silhouette again, if the adversary may have been observing the last known place where one’s silhouette was exposed.

                –Shadows: Shadows can be both a hindrance and a substantial aid in terms of camouflage. We begin with the former. The shadow that one projects can announce one’s presence in advance of one’s arrival, such as around a corner, thus one must be cognizant of where their shadow is being projected and how it could reveal their presence to an observer. Shadows, such as from the brim of one’s hat, can also present a distinctive and compromising appearance. Solutions to the brimmed hat problem could be to remove them or simply not wear one in the first place, turn around front-billed caps or select headgear without a brim.

But for an example of another response to potentially compromising shadows, one which can be drawn from nature, a number of animals and insects; including some gazelles, sharks, penguins and caterpillars; have evolved coloration patterns that make use of something known as countershading, featuring lighter underbellies which would otherwise be darkened by shadows. Countershading thus seeks to counteract the compromising effects of shadows by reversing the shading scheme so that the underside is actually lighter instead of darker. This has been employed by modern militaries in camouflage paint schemes for their equipment, such as for aircraft and artillery pieces.

A similar principle is also at play in yet another approach to applying face paint camouflage, one which pays more attention to reversing the effects of shadows than to texture. Herein, darker paint is applied to protruding surfaces like the brow ridge, nose, cheekbones and chin (as discussed above with regard to reducing shine), while lighter paint is applied to sunken or otherwise shaded areas like the eye sockets, hollows of the cheeks, under the lower lip, etc.

But aside from shadows being potential recognition factors, they can also offer a significant means of reducing such indicators. In fact, in the absence of complete concealment, hiding within shadows is the next best thing, since other visual recognition factors, like color, contrast and texture, can also be significantly reduced or even eliminated. Thus, when selecting a hiding place, look for shadows, the darker and deeper the better. The below image illustrates how even when wearing clothing that differs considerably from one’s environment in terms of color, contrast and texture and without making any attempt whatsoever to hide, simply stepping back into the shadows can help to reduce how apparent one appears to an observer. Thus, when actually attempting to hide, being in the shadows (again the deeper and darker the better) substantially improves one’s chances of avoiding detection.

Given this, during evasion it is advisable to habitually remain within the shadows whenever possible. This includes staying in shadows when moving, or we might say, following the “shadow trails.”

                –Dispersal/Spacing: If travelling as part of a group, spreading out moderately makes smaller, dispersed targets for the adversary to detect, in contrast to a more easily detected larger mass bunched together. Yet dispersal should not be so far apart that members cannot see and communicate with one another, thus preventing the leader from controlling the element and risking group integrity by increasing the likelihood that members become separated from the group. The appropriate distance for any given circumstance is primarily determined by the visibility afforded by terrain and weather. The US Army manual Infantry Platoon and Squad states that a “unit should be dispersed up to the limit of control,” but describes a normal spacing between individual patrol members as being 10 meters.[3] Yet poor visibility due to dense vegetation or inclement weather requires closer spacing.

Other factors, however, include maturity and whether or not all members of the group are well-trained and accustomed to operating together. Young children and people less (or un-)familiar with patrolling techniques and the standard procedures of the group must not be dispersed too far. Such individuals could be paired with more experienced and mature group members and instructed to follow closely behind their senior partner and to do what they do, halt when they halt, take a knee when they do, move into a prone position when they do, etc. If there is a larger number of children or less experienced group members, then dispersal must be sacrificed and the associated risk accepted in order to ensure group integrity so that no one is left behind or separated from the group.

                             –Movement (as it pertains to visual detection): Oftentimes before any other visual recognition factors can be noticed, it is movement, especially when it is sudden, rapid and erratic, that attracts the attention of the human eye. Thus gradual, slow and smooth movement is preferred as it is less easily detected. Movement should also be very deliberate and preplanned, as haphazard selection and use of routes and movement techniques can easily lead to mistakes, accidents and exposure. Furthermore, limit movement to only when it is absolutely necessary. Freezing is an ingrained natural response that serves us well in avoiding detection from threats.

When it is indeed safe and necessary to move, know your next destination and proceed there only after taking care to select concealed or at least camouflaged routes. Also, keeping the use of movement techniques proportionate to the concealment provided by one’s environment is crucial to maximizing efficiency. Use movement techniques which, to a degree proportionate to one’s environment and the risk of detection, lower the silhouette and help one to remain behind concealment. When  one’s entire body is already concealed from the enemy – so long as one has a good idea of where the enemy actually is – crouching, kneeling or crawling do not make sense and are too costly in terms of time and energy expended. When moving across areas with limited opportunities for concealment, it is advisable to dart in 3-5 second rushes between positions of concealment to reduce the likelihood of being observed. For an overview of individual movement techniques, see the earlier article entitled “Individual Movement Techniques.”

Additionally, it is also helpful to know that movement which is lateral in relation to an observer is easier to detect than moving straight toward or away from them, as illustrated in the image below.

 On a final note about movement in relation to visual recognition, causing surrounding vegetation, such as tall grass and branches, to also move can reveal one’s location and should thus be avoided. Movement as it relates to audial detection is also treated below as one of the audial target indicators, the topic to which we now turn.

Audial Target Indicators: Noise discipline

Generally speaking, after visual recognition factors, audial target indicators are the next most important concern for maintaining stealth. Speech, breathing, equipment one may be carrying or using and moving and interacting with one’s environment can all produce sound that could compromise one’s whereabouts. We address each of these factors below in greater detail, but we will first outline some general considerations about the relationship between, on the one hand, sound, and on the other, weather and terrain.

Just as how weather conditions can help or hinder attempts to conceal oneself visually, it is possible and advisable to mask the sound of one’s movements with natural sounds like wind, thunder, precipitation or running water, but also with the sounds of traffic and other urban noise. Moreover, movement is quieter when vegetation and soil are moist but not saturated, whereas crushing dry leaves underfoot or sloshing through puddles of water produces considerable noise. Urban environments can likewise present notable advantages and disadvantages, whether predictable pavement and tile floors or compromising gravel and creaking floorboards, stairs and doors.

Another crucial consideration is the fact that sound travels faster in the cold, such as at night and/or over bodies of water. Additionally, observers may be paying greater attention to their other senses at night or in darkness, due to the degraded visibility in such low-light conditions, and they may therefore be more attuned and sensitive to any noises one may produce.

Obstacles like buildings, vegetation and terrain features can present barriers to sounds you may produce, thus audially concealing you. But conversely, the acoustics may also work against you. Echoes, or the lack thereof, are another important facet to consider. Echoes can highlight one’s presence, since they reverberate the sounds one produces, including around corners. Foliage absorbs and/or diffuses sound, while sound tends to bounce off of/echo from man-made structures and bare tree trunks or rock, again including around corners. Likewise, in a room with carpets, curtains and cushioned, cloth-covered furniture, like a bedroom or living room, these objects absorb sound, whereas in indoor areas without such furnishings or with primarily smooth, bare, hard surfaces, like a stairwell or bathroom, echoes are more likely. But we now finally turn to the various types of audial target indicators themselves, the judicious use, masking, elimination or reduction of which being known as “noise discipline.” We first consider speech.

                –Speaking: While the sounds of one’s movements may be overlooked or mistaken for sounds caused by animals or the wind, the sound of human speech is much more distinctive and compromising. Soft speech can be heard from ca. 300m (1000 ft) to as far as 1km (0.6 miles) away. Thus, if operating in a group, it is imperative to have prearranged signals with which to communicate in order to eliminate or at least reduce the need for speech, such as hand-and-arm signals or insect mimicry.

                –Breathing: At rather close ranges, fast and heavy breathing can audially give away one’s location, as can coughing, sneezing or gasping. These can result from poor physical fitness or health, physical exertion while evading and poor mental discipline. Thus, it is imperative to hone one’s physical fitness as well as the ability to control one’s mind and breath, noting that these are all in fact interconnected. Just as good physical health can help in avoiding hyperventilation as well as reducing stress and the need to cough or sneeze, being certain to breath continuously while moving or hiding can help one to remain calm and mentally in control, thus reducing the likelihood of compromising gasps or exclamations. In the classical 17^th-century ninjutsu manual entitled the Bansenshukai, a notable amount of attention is paid to breath control and the psychology of hiding. For instance, the reader is instructed to cover one’s mouth with one’s sleeve while hiding and to mentally recite the mantra of the warrior goddess Marishi Ten, who is also known for granting invisibility.

While on the topic of breathing, although this actually pertains to a visual indicator, it should be noted that breath can produce steam which can be seen in cold weather. To reduce this risk, it is advisable to exhale through the nose only as well as to cover one’s nose and mouth if occupying a static position.

                –Sounds of equipment: The equipment that one may be carrying or using can produce unwanted and compromising noises. One can quickly identify any rattling gear and jingling keys, coins or other items by simply jumping up and down while listening to whatever sounds are produced. Once identified, these sounds can be eliminated or muffled by taping the offending items or by repositioning them to more secure positions in one’s load.

On another note, mobile phone ringtones or notification sounds can arrive at the least opportune moments, as anyone who has forgotten to silence their phone before a meeting and then received a call or a series or messages can surely attest to. If stealth has become a serious concern, silencing one’s mobile phone must be among one’s first actions. It is also of course important to be familiar with any other equipment you may be using and to know what sounds they may produce and how. Unexpected noises are truly unwelcome surprises while trying to evade a pursuer. Lastly, on sounds produced by equipment and for a general point of reference concerning vehicles, a running truck engine can be heard from 0.5 to 1km (0.3 to 0.6 miles) away.

                –Movement (as it pertains to audial detection): Moving through and interacting with one’s environment inevitably produces noise that could compromise one’s location. That said, however, in accordance with the principle of proportionality, it is imperative to keep attempts to move silently proportionate to the likelihood of detection, especially in light of the enemy’s assessed distance from one’s location. For instance, a moving infantry unit can be heard at 300-600m away. Thus, if a group, let alone an individual, is 600m or more from the known or suspected location of their pursuers, then it makes sense to focus more on things like moving quickly to the nearest sanctuary over avoiding making the slightest noise, which the enemy would likely never hear anyway. While it could be detrimental to tromp rapidly through dry vegetation and break brush with reckless abandon when one is avoiding detection from a foe in close proximity, if that same adversary is more than 600m away, then this may be exactly what is called for to elude them and reach a safe place.

                An overview of individual movement techniques; which are designed to reduce the risk of both visual and audial detection, balancing these two considerations as the situation demands; has already been provided in another article. On top of basic movement techniques; besides stealth methods of crawling, squatting movement, walking and running; there are other things that we do that could produce compromising noises, such as opening doors and moving objects. An awareness of this risk and cautious performance of such actions can help to prevent unwanted and compromising noise resulting from, for instance, surfaces rubbing against one another, hard objects colliding and mechanical or electronic functions.

If within earshot of a pursuer, it is obviously unwise to allow objects to drag on the ground or to haphazardly brush against or bump into things, or to simply drop items, deliberately or accidentally. But there are further precautions that can be taken. Instead of setting a hard object directly onto a hard surface, one can move the object to the surface, touching that surface first with one’s hand, such as with the pinky or the meaty part of the palm, and then gently and cautiously setting it down. If closing or opening a door, one can place a hand on the door frame and the other hand on the doorknob/handle, turn it and then gently close or open as necessary. This increases control and responsivity, such as in the case of a creaking door, and reduces noise that could be caused by hitting the door against the door frame or simply allowing the latch to click open or closed. With regard to closing doors, one must also assess whether this is actually even necessary. It may be better to simply leave it open or only slightly cracked and continue with one’s evasion. Furthermore, in limited visibility such as darkness, one must proceed more slowly and cautiously to avoid not only producing unwanted noise but also to prevent injury. In summary, however, a bit of foresight, attention to detail and caution can go a long way toward avoiding creating compromising noise.

Olfactory Target Indicators:

After sight and sound, smell is the third most likely way that one might be detected. While we have touched on topics like the speeds of sound and light and how far these can travel, acknowledging that these too are quite dependent upon environmental variables, smell is much more difficult to quantify in such ways and is very largely dependent on environmental factors along with the nature of the source of a given smell. Nevertheless, generally speaking, the maximum distance at which an observer can smell oneself is substantially closer than the maximum distances for visual or audial detection.

For some idea, we consider a statement from a hunting blog: “Under normal conditions, a deer can smell a human that is not making any attempt to hide its odor at least 1/4 mile [400 meters] away. If the scenting conditions are perfect (humid with a light breeze), it can even be farther.”[4] Taking into consideration that deer have a more acute sense of smell than even dogs and exponentially greater than humans, this makes clear that with regard to human detection capacity, vision and then hearing have much greater ranges. This is why olfactory indicators come in a distant third, after visual and audial indicators, in terms of priority here.

Put simply, smell is the perception of microscopic molecules emanating from an object. Obviously then, things between oneself and potential observers, such as terrain, vegetation and man-made structures (also used to obscure visual and audial indicators), can to a degree act as obstacles to these molecules, though they can still move around them. Hence, one could be completely concealed visually and entirely silent, but nevertheless be smelled at close ranges, which again underscores how achieving and maintaining distance from a pursuer is paramount

Considering further how smell relates to one’s environment, arid conditions are less favorable to an enemy’s ability to smell, whereas humid conditions are more so. That said, however, warmer temperatures facilitate the vaporization of liquids and solids into gases, thus facilitating smell, while cooler temperatures have the opposite effect. Of further note, enclosed spaces can trap scents, whereas open or well-ventilated spaces allow scent to dissipate.

Moreover, and of particular significance, wind (even the slightest breeze) can blow scent further distances and toward an observer that one is positioned upwind from, or it can blow the scent away from an observer that one is positioned downwind from. Thus, it is obviously preferrable to maintain an awareness of wind direction along with the enemy’s likely or known location and to remain downwind of them. To roughly determine wind direction, one can wet one’s finger or thumb all the way around its circumference and stick it in the air, feeling for whichever side feels the coolest to determine where the wind is blowing from. Another method is to toss grass, leaves or dust into the air and then watch which direction they drift toward.

Thus far, we can discern three basic general strategies, regardless of humidity or temperature, for counteracting olfactory target indicators (the first two also applying to visual and audial indicators): 1- place barriers (terrain, vegetation and man-made structures) between oneself and the enemy, 2- achieve and maintain distance from pursuers and 3- stay downwind from them. All three of these apply to the two subcategories of olfactory target indicators, which we divide into smell of oneself and smell of one’s equipment and activities, turning first to the former.

                –Smell of Oneself: Sources of scent that can be distinctive on one’s person include hygiene products, insect repellent, sunscreen, laundry detergent, aromatic foods (especially if foreign to the region in which one is operating) whether being prepared and eaten or afterwards, candy, breath mints, chewing gum, alcohol and tobacco products (including smokeless tobacco like chew or snuff). One approach is to avoid consuming the full range of the kinds of products described here. For some products, namely alcohol and tobacco, this is advisable for multiple reasons, such as to avoid clouding the mind with alcohol or to prevent tobacco use from adversely affecting one’s cardiovascular fitness and risk of cancer, not to mention the problem of nicotine withdrawal acting as an unnecessarily added stressor and distraction during an evasion situation. On the other factors, it is often recounted that during the Vietnam Conflict, American snipers would reside separately from their countrymen, avoiding their hygiene products and exclusively consuming the food eaten by locals in order to reduce the chances of olfactory detection in the field.

Yet in accordance with the principle of proportionality, aside from some lifestyle choices like avoiding alcohol and tobacco, for the average person, it would be unnecessarily extreme to eliminate all of the above sources of smell from one’s life. Alongside implementing the strategies of achieving distance, using barriers and remaining downwind, one could further mitigate the risk of olfactory detection by avoiding the use of sources of strong scent while actually engaged in evading. Moreover, if the situation permits, one can wash/wipe off any areas where aromatic products have been applied, especially, for instance, perfume or cologne. A further measure could be using smoke, particularly from fragrant plants like pine, to help mask one’s smell, allowing it to waft over oneself and clothing. Yet the use of fire, and burning aromatic plants in particular, is inadvisable in almost all situations in which stealth is a necessity, which brings us to the next category of olfactory target indicators, the scents produced from one’s equipment and activities.

                –Smell of One’s Equipment and Activities The equipment one is using as well as the activities one is engaged in can also emit compromising scents. Fuel, anti-freeze, lubricants and other fluids required for the operation of some equipment, like vehicles and generators, can produce noticeable and distinctive smells. In addition to the strategies of maximizing distance and obstacles along with remaining downwind, proper equipment maintenance, including preventing and repairing leaks, is key here to avoid exacerbating this unavoidable problem. Good maintenance can also reduce how pronounced and compromising exhaust fumes may be, not to mention the sounds produced by their operation.

                On another note, fires and cooking stoves can also release highly compromising scents, as well as visual indicators through smoke and light. Again, it is thus imperative, when stealth is a priority, to not build fires or use cooking stoves unless absolutely and immediately necessary for survival. It is preferrable to eat food that does not need to be cooked and to rely more on proper thermoregulation strategies, such as the proper use and selection of clothing and shelter as well as preventing avoidable heat transfer, such as through conduction, convection and evaporation.  

Lastly, and related to one’s activities, the scent one leaves behind as one moves through an area can also be detected by tracking dogs after one has already departed. While such tracking capability is characteristic of more sophisticated threats and is thus of less concern to us here, it does bring us to the next category to consider, that is recognition factors which are indirect.

Indirect Target Indicators:

Aside from the above direct target indicators, which involve observers perceiving oneself, one’s equipment or position directly, there is also the possibility that such observers could be alerted to one’s approximate whereabouts through indirect means, such as traces that one leaves behind or forewarnings of one’s presence. We first begin with the latter.

–Disturbed animals/insects: Examples of this category of indirect target indicators include barking dogs, spooked cattle, startled birds flying away and the sudden silence of insects. While the last factor of insects might be more difficult to avoid, the other situations can often be foreseen, avoided and prevented, such as if approaching a farm, residential area or a body of water where water fowl may be gathered. The same stealth movement techniques along with countermeasures against visual, audial and olfactory detection that one may use against humans can also be applied to animals, though their effectiveness is of course not as great against animals with keener senses of sight, hearing or smell. Again, remaining downwind in relation to such exposure hazards is important for both sound and smell. Avoiding tracking dogs is an entire field unto itself, but one which is unlikely to be a concern for law-abiding persons using stealth as a means of self-protection. It is thus not addressed here.

                –Local human informants: Generally speaking, third party persons (those other than oneself and companions or the adversary) should be seen more as potential sources of aid, and sought out, rather than as a risk factor for exposure to be avoided. Nevertheless, they may knowingly or unknowingly provide the threat with compromising information, such as one’s last known location, direction of movement, numbers, equipment, state of health, etc. One should thus assess whether locals could be a source of aid and should be contacted or not and are to be avoided. The present author, however, has a rather optimistic perspective and would argue that unless in a war zone or an area where the populace may be colluding with or is being coerced by organized crime or an oppressive hostile government, if there are third party persons, they should be contacted and asked for aid. Even in such extreme circumstances, a decision to contact, informed by a knowledge of the likely loyalties and sympathies of such persons, may be one’s best option. At the very least, they may be able to hide one for a short while. If there is a risk that such persons may later provide information to one’s pursuers, knowingly or unknowingly, one can be cautious with how much and what kinds of information one reveals to them. If the threat you are eluding could also be a danger to third party individuals, there is also the moral imperative of needing to warn them, which requires some degree of contact, or even to facilitate their escape as well. But to reiterate, and in closing, in the majority of situations (unless you are a criminal, a spy or a soldier behind enemy lines), third-party human beings should be contacted and seen more as a potential source of aid than as a risk factor for exposure.

                –Tracking signs To avoid being tracked by signs of your presence that you may have left behind, try to minimize signs like footprints, disturbed soil, rocks and vegetation as well as garbage (the latter being known as practicing good “litter discipline”) and human waste (which can be buried in catholes). Strive not to leave any trace of your presence, leaving the area just as you found it. This is not only an important evasive measure, but it is also good environmental stewardship. Avoid walking on terrain like mud that leaves obvious footprints and try not to leave a trail of broken brush and disturbed foliage in your wake.

If one intends to hide behind a wall of foliage, it is unwise to simply break through the wall and attempt to hide at that location, since the disturbed vegetation can draw an observer’s attention. If one must break through the layer of vegetation to get behind it, it is better to break through at an already thinner and/or less notable place or somewhere that will be out view from the perspective of the enemy’s suspected or known position. Even better is to leave the foliage entirely undisturbed by going around (or over, such as jumping over the first couple of feet of tall grass that one intends to lie down in).

Aside from these basic guidelines, as alluded to already, counter-tracking is another entire field unto itself. It involves taking special measures to prevent leaving signs behind for a tracker to pick up on and follow, removing signs that have been made and incorporating deceptive maneuvers into one’s evasion plan that leave misleading signs behind to throw off human trackers as well as tracking dogs from one’s true trail. Unless in areas like snow-, sand- or mud-covered terrain where tracks may be quite apparent, tracking abilities are characteristic of more sophisticated threats. Thus counter-tracking is seen as a more advanced skill that is not addressed here for the average law-abiding citizen.

Having discussed the three approaches of camouflage, concealment and deception in the first article of this series, and in this article the various target indicators or recognition factors, whether visual, audial or olfactory, the next article delves into several practical exercises which help to train one’s ability to make use of the above approaches to reduce or eliminate target indicators to prevent detection from hostile elements.

Bibliography

Baden-Powell, Robert. Scouting for Boys: A Handbook for Instruction in Good Citizenship. London: C. Arthur Pearson Ltd., 1915.

Birkby, Robert C. The Boy Scout Handbook, 10^th Ed. Irving, TX: Boy Scouts of America, 1990.

Davidson, Phillip L. SWAT (Special Weapons and Tactics). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1979.

Dermody, Matthew. Appear to Vanish: Stealth Concepts for Effective Camouflage and Concealment (Lexington, KY: Hidden Success Tactical, 2018).

Dolmatov, A.I. KGB Alpha Team Training Manual: How the Soviets Trained for Personal Combat, Assassination, and Subversion. Boulder, CO: Paladin Press, 1993.

Itoh, Gingetsu. Gendaijin no Ninjutsu. Trans. Eric Shahan. Charleston: CreateSpace, 2014.

Itoh, Gingetsu. Ninjutsu no Gokui. Trans. Eric Shahan. Charleston: CreateSpace, 2014.

Murray, Malcolm G. “Aimable Air/Sea Rescue Signal Mirrors.” TBP.org, 2004, www.tbp.org/pubs/Features/F04Murray.pdf.

“Q & A: Speed of Sound and Light.” Q & A: Speed of Sound and Light | Department of Physics | University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, accessed April 23, 2021, van.physics.illinois.edu/qa/listing.php?id=2076.

ReWildUniversity, “How to Escape from Pursuers in the Woods (An Evasion Skill-Building Game),” accessed April 23, 2021, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HfSij50oJ14.

Simoni︠a︡n, Raĭr Georgievich., and Sergeĭ Vladimirovich Grishin. Tactical Reconnaissance: A Soviet View. Washington, DC: US GPO, 1990.

U.S. Department of the Army. Camouflage, Concealment, and Decoys. Field Manual 20-3. Washington, DC: Headquarters, Dept. of the Army, 1999.

U.S. Department of the Army. Infantry Platoon and Squad. ATP 3-21.8. Washington, DC: Headquarters, Dept. of the Army, 2016.

U.S. Department of the Army. Sniper Training. Field Manual 23-10. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Army, 1994.

U.S. Department of the Army. Survival. Field Manual 21-76. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Army, 1992.

U.S. Department of the Army. The Warrior Ethos and Soldier Combat Skills. Field Manual 3-21.75. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Army, 2008.

U.S. Department of the Navy. U.S. Navy SEAL Sniper Training Program. New York: Skyhorse, 2011.

U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff. Survival, Evasion, and Recovery: Multiservice Procedures for Survival, Evasion, and Recovery. Washington, DC: U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, 2010.

U.S. Marine Corps. Introduction to Evasion and Resistance to Capture. MCI 0327. Washington, DC: Marine Barracks, 2008.

Winke, Bill. “Can Deer Tell How Far Away a Source of an Odor Is?.” BowHuntingMag.com. Accessed April 11, 2021, https://www.bowhuntingmag.com/editorial/can-deer-tell-how-far-away-a-source-of-an-odor-is/309382#:~:text=%2D%2D%20Chad%20Carl%2C%20Washington%2C%20Pa,it%20can%20even%20be%20farther.

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[1] “Q & A: Speed of Sound and Light.” Q & A: Speed of Sound and Light | Department of Physics | University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, accessed April 23, 2021, van.physics.illinois.edu/qa/listing.php?id=2076.

[2] Malcolm G. Murray, “Aimable Air/Sea Rescue Signal Mirrors,” TBP.org, 2004, www.tbp.org/pubs/Features/F04Murray.pdf.

[3] US Department of the Army, Infantry Platoon and Squad, ATP 3-21.8 (Washington, DC: Headquarters, Dept. of the Army, 2016), 2-22.

[4] Bill Winke, “Can Deer Tell How Far Away a Source of an Odor Is?,” BowHuntingMag.com, accessed April 11, 2021, https://www.bowhuntingmag.com/editorial/can-deer-tell-how-far-away-a-source-of-an-odor-is/309382#:~:text=%2D%2D%20Chad%20Carl%2C%20Washington%2C%20Pa,it%20can%20even%20be%20farther.

Who would not want the security of knowing that they themselves as well as their children, their partner or other loved ones, have the knowledge and skills required to vanish and escape from anyone wishing to do them harm? It is for this reason that the theory and practice of stealth are among our central concerns here.

It should be noted upfront, however, that in the vast majority of situations in which one finds oneself in danger, stealth is the exact opposite of what one wants to achieve. This is probably why this skill does not feature prominently if at all in most self-protection systems. Hence, it cannot be emphasized enough that in most situations, one wants to attract attention to oneself visually and audially, signaling for help by whatever means available and shouting, blowing a whistle, honking a horn or whatever else one can do to attract the attention of potential sources of aid, or at least witnesses to deter criminal threats. Yet stealth is indeed a beneficial and powerful tool, but one whose use is reserved for only those situations in which 1.) potential sources of assistance or bystanders are not immediately available, or 2.) one is seeking to avoid an encounter with a potential or identified threat before it ever occurs.

This series of articles draws its content mainly from various military manuals, US and Soviet, for conventional as well as certain specialized troops like snipers and special operations personnel, the Boy Scout Handbook along with Lord Baden-Powell’s seminal work Scouting for Boys, law enforcement doctrine for SWAT personnel as well as English translations of classical texts on ninjutsu and some early 20^th-century works on the same subject, among other sources. These articles do not claim to be a definitive work on the topic of stealth, or even just stealth for self-protection. Instead, they constitute the author’s best attempt; based on his own limited experience, research and also some educated speculation; to formulate a foundation for using stealth as a means of self-protection for the average person. It is hoped that these articles can stimulate some dialogue on this topic in order to refine, expand or improve upon the ideas and premises outlined here and in subsequent articles.

But beyond only being able to disappear oneself, an understanding of the principles and methods of stealth can also facilitate awareness of how potential adversaries can hide themselves while poised for an attack. Such first-hand knowledge of the fundamentals of stealth allows one to, in US military parlance, “put the red hat on,” meaning to see from the perspective of those seeking to do one harm. This allows one to narrow their focus in detecting threats to problem areas, such as dead space, shadows and thick foliage, while anticipating how adversaries may use the environment to hide themselves, or to understand that their own ability to hear or otherwise recognize an advancing enemy can be adversely affected by certain background distractions and noise that may mask or obscure their foe’s approach.

Thus, given the dual benefits of being able to vanish and remain undetected oneself as well as to understand how potential adversaries may attempt to use stealth to facilitate an attack, this skill seems well worth the investment in time and energy to study, acquire and hone.

Most of the current literature and training programs related to personal stealth, however, pertain to the military, law enforcement or sportspersons, like hunters or paintball enthusiasts, all of whom may enter their respective situations already prepared, to one degree or another, with the necessary materials to blend in to their environments to achieve their intended objectives.[1] In contrast, our focus is on individuals who may find themselves, quite unexpectedly, in need of the ability to vanish and move undetected as expediently as possible to a place of safety and a source of aid. Thus, we are not concerned with which camouflage patterns to purchase or how to construct a ghillie suit, though when selecting clothing and equipment for excursions such as a camping trip, one may take the stealth factors discussed in this series into consideration.

This exemplifies a frequently repeated theme in this series: the principle of proportionality. Efforts to remain undetected must remain proportionate to the risk of being detected by a hostile threat. For most of us, it makes little sense to always don state-of-the-art camouflage patterns or have a ghillie suit on-hand for a potential threat that we will probably never encounter. Instead, we are primarily interested in being able to reduce or eliminate “target indicators,” a term we use synonymously with “recognition factors,” thus avoiding detection to facilitate evasion, regardless of what one is wearing or carrying at any given time. This involves 1.) assessing ourselves, such as our clothing, equipment and any exposed skin and hair; 2.) assessing our environment; including terrain, weather, vegetation and man-made structures; and 3.) determining how these two seemingly distinct but ultimately inseparable sides can interact in a way that affords opportunities for blending, concealing or deceiving to facilitate stealth. In short, we are looking to harmonize with or fit into our environment in such a way that allows us to become or remain undetected by potential adversaries. This ability is displayed all around us in nature, we see children practicing it instinctively, it was crucial for the survival of our primitive ancestors (whether avoiding detection from threats, such as predators and rivals, or while hunting) and it is not far from our own grasp today.

We begin exploring how to harness this ability by first addressing three broader strategies or approaches to preventing a hostile threat from knowing one’s location. In future articles, we will go into further detail on other related topics, like the various types of recognition factors, ideas for training games and exercises to develop one’s stealth abilities and competency, and how to select static positions for longer-term occupation, whether for an hour or two or for an overnight bivouac.

Three Complimentary Approaches to Hiding: Camouflage, Concealment, Deception

Camouflage, concealment and deception can be seen as three different but complimentary approaches to hiding, which could all well be employed simultaneously. The term “hiding” here is used in a broader sense of preventing an observer from detecting one’s presence or at least from knowing one’s precise location. Sight is the most dominant of the three primary senses to consider when attempting to avoid detection, the other two in order of importance being hearing and smell. Accordingly, these three strategies of camouflage, concealment and deception deal chiefly with deceiving or denying the enemy’s sense of sight, though there are undoubtedly corollaries for hearing and smell, such as masking or reducing sound and scent.

It must, however, be noted with regard to the first two approaches (camouflage and concealment) that there is a difference in the levels of risk of exposure entailed in their application. That is, reliance on camouflage (or blending in) poses a greater risk of exposure than the more secure approach of opting for concealment (completely hiding oneself from view). Given that we cannot always predict when we may need to elude a threat, and in accordance with the abovementioned principle of proportionality, it is neither practical nor healthy to constantly select our wardrobe based on the off-chance that today might be the day that we need to disappear from a threat. Instead, if such a situation ever does present itself, it is important to quickly assess whether or not the color, contrast, texture, reflectivity, etc. of our exposed skin and hair, clothing and equipment will help or hinder attempts to blend with our surroundings. If the answer is that they will hinder such efforts, then the safer and often faster option of concealment is preferred over attempting to blend through camouflage. If only certain items of equipment (or parts thereof), such as a backpack, are reflective or a color that stands out, these can be selectively concealed or subdued. In addition to being riskier, camouflage is also a substantially more complex topic, which is why we devote the most space to it below. With this comparative note, we now look at each approach in turn.

Camouflage:

In contrast to some prevailing definitions in military manuals, which consider camouflage as primarily the use of natural or artificial materials to facilitate blending in with one’s environment, here we define camouflage quite simply as: blending in to one’s environment, whether with or without additional natural or artificial aids. This highlights the fact that one may indeed be able to blend sufficiently well into their environment with only an awareness of one’s own recognition factors combined with informed and sensible selection of positions and routes based on the opportunities for blending that the environment provides.  

                There are several ways to achieve successful camouflage, ways which can be readily found in use in nature and that have also been put to use by the world’s militaries, naturalists, hunters, etc. Those pertinent to our purposes include: mimesis, disruptive coloration, altering outline, altering or relying on shadows and eliminating or reducing sources of reflection and light. Mimesis involves resembling the environment, such as in terms of color, contrast, texture, shape, etc. Disruptive patterns of coloration can break up one’s shape but can also contribute to mimicking the environment in terms of color, contrast and especially texture. Altering one’s outline, that is one’s shape or silhouette, also facilitates blending as it delays or inhibits the observer from recognizing one’s form. This can be achieved through crouched, kneeling or flat postures and movement techniques, partial concealment and the addition of camouflage materials like branches. Altering shadows that one projects or that are on one’s entire person or just on parts thereof, can also impede recognition. Shadows can also be relied upon to facilitate blending. Lastly, any items that reflect or produce light should be concealed and/or used sparingly and cautiously. These methods will be addressed in greater detail below, following the format of direct visual target indicators, namely: color, contrast, texture, shine, light, silhouette/shape and shadow, to which are added dispersal and movement.

                Now, however, we turn to the issue of using additional materials for camouflage. While natural or artificial materials can be used to facilitate blending in to one’s environment, given our emphasis on being able to disappear from threats as quickly as possible and proceed as directly as possible to a safe haven, and in accordance with the principle of proportionality, we give less attention to the application of such materials. If the clothing one happens to be wearing facilitates camouflage, then capitalize on this, but if it does not, then it may be better to rely on the safer approach of concealment. Improvements to one’s baseline camouflage (viz., whatever one happens to have on at the moment one needs to begin evasion) should be limited to a.) mitigating dramatically apparent target indicators, b.) situations in which one cannot proceed immediately to a safe place and must evade for a longer period or in a less direct manner, or c.) when close and unavoidable contact is expected and the circumstances allow one to employ additional materials for camouflage. Camouflaging with additional materials not only takes time, it also requires attention, which might be better spent monitoring/observing for the threat and finding an escape route. Each situation is different, and one must assess and decide for oneself. But having established that adding additional materials to improve one’s baseline camouflage is reserved for mitigating significantly noticeable recognition factors, for longer term evasion and/or when close contact is expected and the situation allows for such measures, we now look into two main ways of doing this which can be used together: adding vegetation or artificial materials and applying paint.

The first basic technique is to attach vegetation from one’s environment, such as branches or vines with foliage or grasses, to one’s clothing and equipment. Buttonholes, pockets, straps and added cordage can help to attach such materials to one’s body. This can facilitate modifying one’s color and texture as well as distorting one’s shape, especially if attention is paid to breaking up the outline of the head and shoulders. Natural materials used should match the environment in which one is trying to hide. Thus, tall stalks of grass, for instance, would be inappropriate for trying to blend into a deciduous forest. When moving through areas with different types of vegetation, added natural materials for camouflage must be updated as necessary to blend with new settings as one enters them. Natural materials should be taken from a wider area so as not to create noticeable gaps in foliage by collecting from just one spot. Moreover, in addition to added camouflage simply falling off and needing to be replaced, during a longer period of evasion, plucked foliage can wilt quickly and then also cause one to stand out, so it may be necessary to regularly replace it with fresh material. An artificial alternative could be attaching strips of cloth, such as from burlap sacks.

Another technique is to use paint or dye on exposed skin, hair, clothing and/or equipment. Pertaining to skin, if on-hand, one could use commercially produced camouflage skin paint or resort to improvised alternatives such as burnt cork (non-synthetic), charcoal (without chemical additives) or lamp black (aka, carbon black). Mud could also be used, but due to the risk of bacteria and parasites, this is only recommended as a last resort. We address different patterns for applying camouflage paint in the next article, but here we must enumerate some of the drawbacks to its use. Over time, paint on skin wears off due to perspiration and rubbing, thus it must be regularly reapplied. Moreover, face paint can also prevent the recognition of cold weather injuries by one’s companions since it conceals tell-tale bluish-white skin. Lastly, camouflage paint applied to one’s face can be difficult to remove and could complicate the situation when seeking aid, potentially frightening or arousing the suspicion of people who would otherwise readily come to one’s aid.

Easily removed alternatives include a scarf with a watch cap or a balaclava, an improvised version of which is easily made with just a t-shirt. The collar is formed into a slit over the eyes while the sleeves are tied behind the head by pulling them both back and simply crossing one sleeve over and then under the other and pulling tight (like the first half of tying a square knot). This holds in place well and can be very quickly removed.

Of course, such coverings can also cause problems if one encounters potential sources of aid, like the police or security personnel, before having removed it. Thus, as always, situational awareness and preparedness to remove the mask when necessary are key. But in accordance with the principle of proportionality, one must assess whether the benefits of using such a face-covering outweigh the risks. The present author would suggest that in most circumstances, they do not and it would be better to go without, instead burying the face in one’s elbow notch when necessary.

To conclude the overview of camouflage, when evading as part of a group and the decision has been made to apply additional materials for personal camouflage, it is important to take turns in doing so, so that while some group members are applying camouflage, others are maintaining 360° security. If alone, one must divide their attention between security and applying camouflage. When finished applying one’s personal camouflage, it is advisable to have a companion identify any improvements that could be made.

Concealment:

As the name makes clear, concealment conceals – obstructing observation of – oneself, one’s equipment and one’s position. That which does the concealing may be thick layers of vegetation (the more the better in terms of concealment), terrain features or man-made structures which all create “dead space” within which one can hide. Since concealment obstructs the enemy’s view, regardless of what one is wearing or carrying, it is a more secure option than camouflage (that is, attempting to blend in to one’s environment). Using terrain to hide oneself, such as remaining on the reverse slope of a hill, are discussed under the recognition factor of silhouette/shape in the next article of this series.

Closely related to concealment is the concept of cover, which refers to anything providing ballistic protection from enemy firearms. Cover might include terrain, trees (as a general rule of thumb, if a tree is wide enough to conceal you, it can probably also stop bullets) or a vehicle’s engine block, though depending on construction materials, walls often fail to provide sufficient protection from bullets and doors even less frequently so. Thick layers of foliage obviously do not stop bullets, though the concealment which they provide can prevent an armed opponent from being able to locate and effectively place their fires on one’s position. Thus such foliage is not cover, but merely concealment.

Cover usually also provides concealment, but this is not always the case. For instance, a pane of bullet-resistant glass offers cover but not concealment, since the enemy can clearly see one’s location. This situation is similar to the case of a hardened permanent medical facility bearing the mandatory Geneva Convention markings designating it as such clearly displayed. For our general purposes, however, the difference is more philosophical and it is sufficient to understand that some sources of concealment also offer protection from small arms fire, while others do not, and that we refer to the former as “cover.”

Deception:

Turning to the third and final main strategy, that is deception, it should be noted that camouflage could indeed be seen as a form of deception, since while the observer can see part or all of oneself, they are deceived into believing that one is not there, since with successful camouflage, the observer only perceives the environment into which one has blended. Even concealment could be seen as a form of deception, since one is present but remains outside of the observer’s view. Yet deception is a broader category and there are other applications of deception for stealth that do not primarily rely on camouflage or concealment, though which can and should be used in conjunction with them.

Misdirection is the basic principle of deception which, in the context of stealth, causes the observer’s attention to be drawn toward what is unimportant (in terms of their interest in pursuing you), insubstantial, false or empty (kyo, 虚) and away from what is important, substantial and true (jitsu, 実). The goal is to exchange the substantial for the insubstantial (kyojitsu tenkan ho, 虚実 転 換 法). Perhaps of paramount importance here is the fact that distraction can be used as a means for breaking contact to facilitate escape when directly engaged with an adversary, such as by throwing sand, ash, dirt, gravel, hot liquids, dishes, glasses, ashtrays or other objects into a pursuer’s face, striking them or otherwise capturing their attention and using the moment that they are distracted to escape and begin one’s evasion.

In modern military parlance, we might describe this as getting ahead of, or restarting, the enemy’s OODA (Observe, Orient, Decide, Act) loop. Before they are able to complete, or preferably even begin to initiate, their act (such as an attack), one can set them back to observing, the very beginning of the loop, by completing a distracting act oneself, followed by another loop culminating in yet a further act, escaping, followed by a further act still, evading (including by means of camouflage and concealment).

 As already alluded to, misdirection continues to come into play after initial contact has been broken. For instance, when fleeing and after leaving the observer’s field of vision into dead space, such as by passing over a hill or a blind curve, change your direction of movement and either hide suddenly (using camouflage or concealment) or continue in a new direction. The observer’s attention will be drawn to continue along the same trajectory you were previously travelling in.[2]

Decoys are another means of deception by misdirection, attracting the adversary’s attention away from one’s true location or direction of movement. Aside from the more obvious kind of decoy, a dummy or mannequin, there are additional ways of drawing an observer’s attention away from one’s true location. One might shake tree branches, bushes or grass to attract the enemy’s attention before slipping away and moving in a different direction. One could also throw an object like a stone or log into a body of water to imply that one has jumped in, while then evading by another route. Similarly, an object could be thrown into trees or bushes to also draw attention away from one’s actual position. Such maneuvers, however, entail a substantial degree of risk, since even though they might mislead pursuers as to your actual location, they all but confirm your presence somewhere in the vicinity and will surely put pursuers on much higher alert. Thus, it is preferable to make use of better camouflage and concealment over having to rely on such risky deception tactics. Yet a further and somewhat less risky possibility for using decoys is leaving behind false tracking signs to be followed, such as disturbed soil, foliage, litter and/or clothing fragments, in such a way as to suggest that one has taken a different route than one actually has.

Having introduced the idea of stealth as a means of self-protection and addressed three overarching strategies for achieving stealth, in the next article we will focus on the range of specific target indicators, also called recognition factors, and preventing an adversary’s recognition thereof. This will involve specific applications of the strategies of camouflage, concealment and deception in terms of visual target indicators as well as corollaries of such strategies for audial and olfactory target indicators.

References

Dermody, Matthew. Appear to Vanish: Stealth Concepts for Effective Camouflage and Concealment (Lexington, KY: Hidden Success Tactical, 2018).

Itoh, Gingetsu. Gendaijin no Ninjutsu. Trans. Eric Shahan. Charleston: CreateSpace, 2014.

Itoh, Gingetsu. Ninjutsu no Gokui. Trans. Eric Shahan. Charleston: CreateSpace, 2014.

ReWildUniversity, “How to Escape from Pursuers in the Woods (An Evasion Skill-Building Game),” accessed April 23, 2021, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HfSij50oJ14.

U.S. Department of the Army. Camouflage, Concealment, and Decoys. Field Manual 20-3. Washington, DC: Headquarters, Dept. of the Army, 1999.

U.S. Department of the Army. Infantry Platoon and Squad. ATP 3-21.8. Washington, DC: Headquarters, Dept. of the Army, 2016.

U.S. Department of the Army. Sniper Training. Field Manual 23-10. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Army, 1994.

U.S. Department of the Army. Survival. Field Manual 21-76. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Army, 1992.

U.S. Department of the Army. The Warrior Ethos and Soldier Combat Skills. Field Manual 3-21.75. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Army, 2008.

U.S. Department of the Navy. U.S. Navy SEAL Sniper Training Program. New York: Skyhorse, 2011.

U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff. Survival, Evasion, and Recovery: Multiservice Procedures for Survival, Evasion, and Recovery. Washington, DC: U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, 2010.

U.S. Marine Corps. Introduction to Evasion and Resistance to Capture. MCI 0327. Washington, DC: Marine Barracks, 2008.

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[1] An impressive and exhaustive work in this category is Matthew Dermody’s Appear to Vanish: Stealth Concepts for Effective Camouflage and Concealment (Lexington, KY: Hidden Success Tactical, 2018).

[2] For an excellent demonstration of this, see ReWildUniversity, “How to Escape from Pursuers in the Woods (An Evasion Skill-Building Game),” accessed April 23, 2021, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HfSij50oJ14.

The preceding two articles in this series of posts have dealt with how to prepare a group for a given action, beginning with an overview of the Troop Leading Procedures (TLPs) and then a closer look at the third step thereof: making a tentative plan. Now we take a closer look at step seven of the TLPs with a format for how a leader can communicate that plan to the group as a whole, namely, the Operation Order (OPORD).[1] It has been said about the history and origins of the OPORD that:

“Its foundation lay in 19th century German military experiences and was introduced to the US military by Captain Eben Swift in 1897. The US order format has evolved throughout 20th century warfare with the aim of keeping pace with changes in weapons, tactics, and the tempo of modern combat.”[2]

It doesn’t have to be perfect, nor must it (nor should it) be exactly as it would appear when used for military operations. For instance, certain factors like the enemy situation may not apply. Any leader can use this general format to prepare, organize and ensure that they have considered and communicated to their subordinates all the main points of their plan for whatever objective they intend to achieve.

This format and, for that matter, the entire TLP’s don’t even have to be carried out by an actual designated leader at all. An individual in an egalitarian group could simply use them to help facilitate making valuable suggestions, gently guiding their peers in the group planning process. The OPORD format covers the situation (including weather, terrain, enemy and friendly forces, as well as third-party elements), what it is you’re intending to accomplish (along with who, when, where and why) as well as a detailed description of how it is to be accomplished, how such an endeavor will be supported logistically (such as in terms of sustenance, medical needs, accommodation, travel), and lastly, how guidance, coordination and communication will take place. But with all of that said, let’s finally get to it.

An OPORD is a directive issued in an oral briefing/presentation or written format that a leader gives her or his subordinates to instruct them in the action they are about to undertake, including the how and why, along with providing any other information they may need in order to carry out this action. The OPORD format structures the information, making its contents logically arranged as well as easily accessible and digestible, especially for those familiar with such a format, but it also ensures completeness, that is, that all major considerations have been addressed.

An OPORD consists of five paragraphs: Situation, Mission, Execution, Service Support and Command & Signal. Warning Orders (WARNOs), given to initially notify subordinates of an upcoming mission to allow them to prepare in parallel with the leader’s planning, also follow this five-paragraph structure, as do Fragmentary Orders (FRAGOs), which are used to update complete OPORDs that have already been issued with new information, decisions and changes to the originally issued plan.

Traditionally, each operation is given a unique code name, which allows for it to be referenced discreetly and obliquely to facilitate operational security (OPSEC). For instance, the Invasion of Normandy was code-named “Operation Overlord.” Yet we have found that giving such a name, especially for preplanned events like a camping trip or training exercise, can also foster esprit de corps and enthusiasm among participants.

The five paragraphs of the OPORD, only very slightly modified for our purposes here at Ten-Chi-Jin.de, are as follows:

Situation: This paragraph deals with most of the same topics already addressed while making a tentative plan under the acronym METT-TC. While the mission is covered in the next paragraph and the timeline in the one after that, here we consider the remaining factors from METT-TC, namely, Weather and Terrain, Enemy Forces, Friendly Forces (or troops available) and Civilians (or third-party actors).

                Weather and Terrain: The most significant weather (and illumination) data include temperature (high and low), humidity, wind speed and direction, cloud cover, precipitation, times for the rising and setting of the moon and the sun, phase of the moon, EENT and BMNT. Salient terrain considerations are summarized with the acronym OCOKA (Observation, Cover and Concealment, Obstacles, Key Terrain, Avenues of Approach). It is crucial to explain how weather and terrain considerations effect the particular mission at hand. These two topics will be addressed in a separate article.

                Enemy Forces (If Applicable): Describe the enemy situation using the assessments made while making a tentative plan along with any updates from reconnaissance. Be sure to cover how many there are (estimated or known), what capabilities they have or could have, their suspected or known location(s), their recent activities and what their most likely and most dangerous courses of action are (MLCOA and MDCOA).  

                Friendly Forces: For our purposes, this subsection includes the “task organization,” that is an organigram or organizational chart of those involved in carrying out a particular mission or activity.[3]

                Civilians: Here it should be addressed whether there are any others besides hostile elements or members of one’s own group who might be sources of aid, who must be warned of any dangers if encountered or whose presence may in any other way effect the accomplishment of the mission. An example would be, if conducting stealth exercises, the risk of startling passersby or even having the police called on one’s group for suspicious activities and what measures to take to avoid this.

Mission: This paragraph consists quite simply of the mission statement, as developed earlier while making a tentative plan (see earlier article), but updated (if necessary). We have previously defined a mission statement as “a single, clear and concise sentence that includes the who, what, when, where and why of the action(s) to be accomplished.” We also provided the example mission statement of: “We (the entire group) will travel undetected to and request assistance at the police station at 18 Baker Street before sunset at 19:15 in order to elude hostile elements and any harm they might intend before dark falls.”

Execution:

In the briefest of terms, while the mission paragraph provides the who, what, when, where and why; the execution paragraph provides the how.

The execution paragraph summarizes how the COA selected during the process of making a tentative plan (see previous article) will be carried out, it enumerates the tasks (with accompanying purposes) to accomplish this COA for both the main effort as well as supporting elements, and it provides instructions that are relevant to multiple (two or more) individuals or elements.

First off, one describes, from start to finish, how the selected COA is to be carried out. If the plan is especially complex, it may be appropriate to provide two levels of detail, starting with a summarized overview or “concept of the operation,” followed by properly delving into the nuts and bolts. In this paragraph, one should also designate the main effort, whose mission is the most important and which all other elements and tasks work to support and facilitate. Describe how the mission of this main effort is to be accomplished as well as how directly supporting endeavors, like those of security, reconnaissance, intelligence and engineer assets, will be integrated into this plan. Medical and logistical support, however, are covered in the fourth paragraph of the OPORD, and communications in the fifth paragraph.

Next, all elements are assigned tasks and purposes to collectively accomplish the mission. Whether serving as the main effort or playing supporting roles, every element is given specific tasks to accomplish, each of which must also be accompanied by a purpose explaining the reason for performing each task, that is how it facilitates overall mission success.

Finally, coordinating instructions are provided when instructions apply to multiple (two or more) elements. The following types of information are included here:

                -Timeline (including aspects of preparation, like backbriefs, rehearsals and inspections, as well as the start time for the mission and major events therein)

                -Risk reduction measures (like the use of safety equipment and procedures)

                -Movement plan: If the mission itself is a movement, then this is discussed above in describing the concept of the operation and how the mission will be executed. Otherwise, it is included here. The movement plan includes:

                                -Order of movement

                                -Formation and movement techniques

                                -Actions at both long and short halts

                                -Primary and alternate routes

                                -Rally points as well as actions to be performed there

                                -Actions at danger areas (small, large and linear), both specific for those that are known in advance, and general, for those that are unanticipated

Service Support:

This paragraph addresses supplies and services, largely dealing with logistics and medical care, which support and facilitate the main operation. Food and water requirements, and if necessary, billeting needs, are discussed here. If any transportation and/or special equipment is required to accomplish the mission, these are also covered in this paragraph. Medical care is another essential consideration, including the location of first aid kits and equipment, designated first responders to provide on-site medical treatment, the nearest hospitals, medical evacuation plans and preventative medicine considerations.

Command & Signal: This paragraph deals with (1) the leadership of the element engaged in the activity at hand as well as (2) the means by which the members of such an element are to communicate (2a) internally with one another as well as (2b) externally with others outside of their element. We thus divide this paragraph, as anticipated in its name, into the two parts of command and signal.

                Command: Here, one should specify the location of key leaders at every phase of the operation, including any command posts if established, as well as the succession of command, should a leader become incapacitated or unable to lead.

                Signal: This subparagraph addresses how the group will communicate both internally and externally, such as with potential sources of aid or third party “civilians” who may be in harm’s way.

                                -Internal communications might include voice, hand-and-arm signals, insect mimicry, whistles, duress codes, challenge and password, running passwords, etc.

                                -External communications could make use of voice, mobile phones, Internet, ground-to-air signals, smoke or fire signals, flares, reflective mirrors, foghorns, etc.

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[1] As with the preceding articles in this series of posts, the primary sources used here consist of two versions of the Ranger Handbook, the 2000 (SH 21-76) and the current 2017 (TC 3-21.76) editions, along with FM 7-8 Infantry Rifle Platoon and Squad (now FM 3-21.8).

[2] Major Matthew L. Smith, The Five Paragraph Field Order: Can a Better Format Be Found to Transmit Combat Information to Small Tactical Units? (Fort Leavenworth, KS: School of Advanced Military Studies, U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, 1988), p. 1. Available at: https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a210966.pdf (Accessed 28 January 2021).

[3] Doctrinally, the task organization is typically included before and separate from the Situation paragraph. In an Army OPORD, the “Friendly Forces” section includes information like the mission, commander’s intent and concept of operations of the headquarters immediately higher than one’s own as well as one step higher than that, or in other words, two levels up. It also addresses the locations as well as tasks and purposes of adjacent units (to the left, right, front and rear), along with how their activities may affect those of one’s own unit. Since the kinds of actions we address here are not usually part of a complex, large-scale operation involving multiple moving pieces, this aspect has been simplified.